SKILL ACQUISITON Flashcards
Muscular movement:
Include : definition of 2 or 3 things and example of each
Gross: large muscle movements using large muscle groups which aren’t very precise, movement patterns include walking, running
Example: shot put
Fine: intricate movements using small muscle groups, tend to be precise and generally involve high levels of hand- eye coordination
Example: a snooker shot
Environmental influence:
Open skills: affected by environment ( team games)
. Environment is constantly changing so movements have to continually adapt- skills predominantly perceptual
Example: skills in football, netball - pass in the game
Closed skills: not affected by environment.
Environment is predictable and performer knows exactly wha to do and when. Movements have set patterns with clear beginning and end
. Skills tend to be self paced
Example: free throw in basketball
Continuity:
Discrete: single, brief, well defined actions that have a clear beginning and end. Single, specific skills
Example: penalty flick in hockey
Serial: group of discrete skills strung together to make new and complex movement Example: sequence of skills for triple jump
Continuous: no obvious beginning or end. End of one cycle of movements is the beginning of the next- skill is repeated
Example: swimming, running, cycling
Pacing:
Internally: self paced skills; performer controls rate at which the skill is executed - usually closed skills
Example: javelin throw, discus
Externally: environment controls rate if performing the skill. Performer must may attention to external events in order to control rate of movement- skill involves reaction with usually open skills
Example: in ball games- performer must time their actions with the actions of other players and the ball
Difficulty:
Simple: straightforward with very few judgements and decisions, requires little concentration and cognitive ability of the performer
Example: swimming, sprinting
Complex: many decisions and judgements. They are complicated and practised in training repeatedly to make it easier to perform in competition
Example: somersault, tennis serve
Organisation:
Low: very easy and uncomplicated. Moves like riding a bike and phases that make the skill are usually discrete and might be practised separately to make technique better- subroutines are easy to separate
Example: swimming strokes, trampolining sequence
High: many subroutines are closely linked together to make this skill. They cannot be broken down and practised
Example: cartwheel, golf swing
Name all the METHODS of practice:
. Part practice
. Whole practice
. Whole- part- whole practice
. Progressive- part practice
Name all the TYPES of practice:
. Massed
. Distributed
. Fixed
. Varied
Part practice:
Include: definition, when and why it’s used and practical example
. Working on an isolated subroutine with aims of perfecting it
. Used with low organisation skills and if task is complex and dangerous- easily broken down into subroutines
. Allows performer to make sense of skill- gains confidence and reduces possibility of overload
Example: practising backswing only in tennis serve
Whole practice:
. Skills being taught without breaking down into subroutines or parts
. Used with high organisation skills that need to be taught as a whole
. Allows performer to experience feel of skill- Kinaesthesia
. Example: sprinting and dribbling- cyclic or continuous nature will not break down into subroutines
Whole- part- whole practice:
. Practising the whole skill, then practising a subroutine in isolation, then practising the whole skill again
. Used with serial skills, low organisation skills when subroutines have distinct features
. Recognises strengths and weaknesses and corrects specific skill errors- allows some feel of skill
Example:
1) practise whole swimming stroke
2) practise leg kick in isolation (using float)
3) practise whole stroke again
Progressive- part practice:
. Skills broken down into subroutines; performer learns one link, then a second link and practises these, further links are added on (chaining)
. Used with complex skills as it reduces info overload, low organisation skills and good for serial skills
. Helpful to allow performer to learn links between subroutines and transfer these into whole skill
Example: gymnastic floor routine, triple jump. Lay-up shot in basketball, trampoline routine
Massed practice (type):
. Practice session involves very short or no rest intervals
. Good for discrete skills of short duration, used with highly motivated performers with good fitness levels
. Used to groove skills, long sessions used when coach wants to simulate elements of fatigue
. Example: basketball players practise shooting skills by drills involving shots from different positions around the key
Distributed practice:
. Practise sessions with rest intervals included
. With continuous skills, dangerous and complex skills, includes beginners or those with low levels of fitness and motivation
. Rest intervals allow performer to receive feedback and helps maintain motivation Example: swimmer swims a width and then rests while teacher gives feedback
Fixed practice:
. Specific movement pattern practised repeatedly in a stable environment- drill
. Used with closed skills that require specific movement patterns to become over-learned
. Allows skills to become habitual and automatic
Example: discus thrower practises in discus circle, using same weight implement
Varied practice:
. When a skill is practised in many environments
. Used with open skills- practice conditions must be as realistic as possible
. Allows development of experiences in LTM- performer can draw on and develops performer’s perceptual and decision making skills
Example: small sided game in football, where performer can work on passing, positional play and strategy
Name all the TRANSFER of skills
. Proactive transfer
. Retroactive transfer
. Positive transfer
. Negative transfer
. Bilateral transfer
Positive transfer:
Include: definition, coach’s aid and example
. Occurs when 2 skills in questions are similar in some way- having mastered 1 of the skills, it makes learning 2nd skill easier
. Coach can aid positive transfer by:
> Making sure individual understands similarities between 2 skills
> making sure basics of first skill are well learned so they can transfer easily to second
. Example: skill of throwing can be transferred to the arm action of the tennis serve
Negative transfer:
. Occurs when having learned one skill makes learning the 2nd skill more difficult and happens when a stimulus common to both skills require different response
. Can be avoided by:
> making sure athlete is aware of the difference
> making practice sessions similar to match situations, to ensure larger and generalised motor programme
Example: squash player who takes up tennis may find it difficult to learn to not use wrist during shots
Bilateral transfer:
. Involves transfer of learning from one limb to another - refers to the capacity of a performer who may be dominantly right- handed to perform a skill with the left side of their body
Takes place in 2 ways:
- Cognitive aspects- understanding what’s required
- Transfer of motor programme- the pattern of 1 movement learned by 1 limb is used subconsciously by other limb
Example: footballer who can shoot with right and left foot with matching power and accuracy= considerable asset to team
Optimising positive transfer and limiting negative transfer: (4 points)
. Allow positive transfer by offering variable practices which imitate game situations
. Make performers aware of transferable elements, e.g teacher highlights that throwing a javelin is like throwing a rounders ball- same arm position
. Give clear and concise demonstrations
. Diverse childhood experiences enhance probability of transfer, performer must learn wide range of fundamental motor skills.
Name all the LEARNING THEORIES:
. Operant conditioning
. Thorndike’s laws
. Cognitive theory of learning
. Observational learning/ SLT
Operant conditioning:
Include: description of theory and sporting examples of how it can be used
. ASSOCIATIONIST VIEW
> Trial and error learning
> Correct response is rewarded
> Reinforces correct response
> This behaviour is shaped (changed) Example: During football shooting practice, coach may direct players to strike ball into right side of goal. If this is done they’re rewarded. Rewarding this behaviour strengthens link.
Thorndike’s laws:
. BASED ON STRENGTHENING S-R BONDS:
. Law of exercise- rehearsing or repeating actions strengthens reinforcement
. Law of effect- if followed by pleasant reaction S-R bond is strengthened; if following reaction is negative S-R bond is weakened
. Law of readiness- Athlete must be both mentally and physically capable of performing the skill efficiently
Example: During hockey-
Exercise: repeated dribbling practice strengthens S-R bond
Effect: positive comments about dribbling technique strengthens S-R bond, negative comments weaken S-R Bond
Readiness: if performer is injured they may not be able to dribble effectively.
Cognitive theory of learning:
. INTERVENING VARIABLES AND INSIGHT LEARNING:
. Learning is best achieved by premising whole skill . Learner must understand and think about problem as a whole
. Thought processes are dependent upon perception
. Learner will use intelligence, current knowledge, previous experience to plan or predict solution
Example: A cricketer learns to swing the ball when bowling by understanding mechanics of movement.
Observational learning/ SLT:
. COPYING BEHAVIOURS OF OTHERS:
. Behaviour will be copied if role model is significant other and of high status
. Role models are copied if they are the same gender as leaner
. Form of visual guidance
. A demonstration is presented for the learner to copy
. Process involves attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation
Example: a young rugby player may copy the behaviour of a professional player they’ve seen on TV. This could be positive sportsmanship or negative aggressive behaviour.
Name the STAGES OF LEARNING: (In order)
. Cognitive
. Association
. Autonomous
Stage 1: Cognitive stage (initial)
Include: description and sporting example
. The learner is trying to create a mental image of the skill
. Demonstrations are vital
. Teachers shouldn’t give too much information
. Give guidance to focus on important cues (selective attention)
. Practise skill with trial and error
. Reinforce success with positive feedback
. Performances will be inconsistent, lack coordination and flow and be full of error
. Detailed verbal feedback is given
Example: A teacher demonstrates a serve to a beginner badminton player. The performer has a mental picture, plus key cues, and practises.
Stage 2: Associative stage (intermediate)
. Practice stage
. Learner attends to relevant cues
. Errors are fewer and smaller
. Big Improvements made in performance
. Motor programmes are developed
. Subroutines become more coordinated, resulting in skill become more smoother
. Learner develops ability to use kinaesthetic feedback to detect own errors
. Detailed verbal feedback given
Example: The badminton player is becoming more consistent with their serve, and is now concentrating on height over the net. The performer can detect errors and make adjustments without teacher’s help.
Stage 3: Autonomous stage (final)
. Learner can execute skill with little conscious thought (automatically)
. They can concentrate on other factors
. Motor programmes are established and stored in LTM and put into action in response to appropriate stimuli
. There’s less need for external feedback
. If practice isn’t maintained learner may drop back into associative stage
. Example: A tennis player can focus on where to place the ball in relation to their opponent rather than grip, stance, ball toss, etc. Team player are able to focus on tactics and strategies rather than executing skills
Name the types of GUIDANCE:
. Verbal guidance
. Visual guidance
. Mechanical guidance
. Manual guidance
Verbal guidance:
Include: description, advantages and disadvantages
. Can be provided by coach or significant other
. Used to describe and explain how to perform an activity
. Often used alongside visual guidance
. Advantages:
> can reinforce good movements and identify errors to be corrected
> can hold attention of performer and be used to motivate
. Disadvantages:
> can lead to info overload . If guidance is inaccurate, skills will be hindered
Visual guidance:
. Images or demonstrations can be used to help a leaner, such as still images (pictures/posters) or moving images (videos or animations- use of slow motions)
. Coach should highlight key points of the movement. Reinforcing these key points= cueing
. The Images and demonstrations shown should be accurate
. Advantages:
> Easy to create mental picture
> Skill can be seen at different stages
> Encourages observational learning
.Disadvantages:
> If demonstration is incorrect, bad habits could form
> coach may not be able to show accurate demonstration
> Visual representation may be unclear or too quick
Manual guidance:
. Involves the coach physically altering the learner’s body position to ensure that their physical performance of skill is correct.
. Primarily used when learning how to perform a dangerous and complex skill . Advantages:
> Increases confidence levels
> Allows complex skill to be broken down into simpler parts
Disadvantages:
> learner can be over reliant on physical guidance to perform the correct movements
> Doesn’t allow improvement in kinaesthetic awareness
Mechanical guidance:
. Involves coach using equipment to help the performer learn how to perform specific sections of a movement correctly
. Generally used during learning of dangerous and complex skill
. Advantages:
> Can make skill safer and help to provide general feel of the movement required to perform correctly
. Disadvantages:
> can decrease accuracy of learner’s internal feedback and they can become over-reliant on equipment to perform movements correctly.
Name all the types of FEEDBACK:
. Intrinsic feedback
. Extrinsic feedback
. Positive feedback
. Negative feedback
. Knowledge of results
. Knowledge of performance
Intrinsic feedback:
Include: definition/description, advantages and disadvantages and example
. A type of continuous feedback that comes from the proprioceptors- nerve receptors found in the muscles, ligaments and joints that pick up movement information
. Kinaesthesia is involved
. Advantages:
> Improves performer’s kinaesthetic awareness
> Useful for elite athletes as they rely less on external feedback
. Disadvantages:
> Learners at cognitive stage of learning may not understand how correct movement is supposed to feel
Example: the feel of whether or not you have hit the ball in the middle of the bat in the cricket shot.
Extrinsic feedback:
. Feedback that comes from external sources for example a teacher/ coach
. Received by visual and auditory systems and is used to augment intrinsic feedback
. Advantages:
> Useful for those in the cognitive and associative stages of learning
> Improves focus and motivation
. Disadvantages:
> Disregards any kinaesthetic awareness of movement
> Performer becomes over reliant on external gratification
Example: coach saying “you need to point your toes in the pike jump.”
Positive feedback:
. Received when movement is successful
. Reinforces skill learning and gives information about a successful outcome
. Advantages:
> Increases self efficacy, especially in early stages of learning
> Can lead to reinforcement of correct responses
. Disadvantages:
> Can lead to over confidence if used repeatedly
Negative feedback:
. Received when movement is incorrect (unsuccessful outcome) and is used to correct movement to make it successful next time
. Advantages:
> Can prevent future errors
> Can improve motivation and focus
. Disadvantages:
> Can reduce self efficacy and motivation for those in cognitive stage of learning.
Knowledge of results:
. Type of terminal feedback that gives performer information about the end result of the response - extrinsic
. Advantages:
> Easy to identify progression in performance
> If successful can improve task persistence
. Disadvantages:
> Overuse can lead to reduced performance enjoyment
> Doesn’t explain why performance was successful or unsuccessful- may make it harder to replicate a successful performance
Example: observing whether the shot went in the basket or watching the movement on video recording
Knowledge of performance:
. Information about how well the movement is being executed, rather than end result
. Usually comes from external sources ( video recording) but can be internal- kinaesthetic awareness
. Can come from teacher/ coach explaining WWW or EBI
. Advantages:
> Helps to identify finer details of an action and explains effect they have on performance
. Disadvantages:
> Can provide too much information for a learner
> Doesn’t allow learner to appreciate whole feel for movement
What is required for effective feedback?
. Feedback should correspond to skill level of performer (Cognitive/ Associative/ Autonomous)
. Limit amount of info given
. Feedback should be given immediately or ASAP
. Feedback should relate to individual
. Try to facilitate internal feedback/ kinaesthesia
Name the memory models and the theorists:
*HINT*- There’s twooooooooo
. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi store memory model
. Craik and Lockhart’s level of processing model
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi store memory model:
Include: definition and state the 3 stages of remembering information
. Memory is so important for sports performers as it is used when learning new skills, developing skills already acquired and remembering tactics and strategies
. 3 stages of remembering information:
. Short term sensory store (STSS)
. Short term memory (STM)
. Long term memory (LTM)
Describe Atkinson and Shifftin’s multi store memory model (diagram)
. Short term sensory store (STSS):
. STSS is a limitless memory store for holding information for 1 second
. Viewed as subdivided part of STM
. Streams of sensory stimuli/ info are passed into and stored very briefly in STSS and processed simultaneously before next streams enter and are processed
. Selective attention selects relevant stimuli in STSS and directs them into STM for further processing- irrelevant stimuli are lost
. Short term memory (STM):
. Includes: example
. Represents ‘working memory space’ where information from the STSS and LTM are received and brought together
. STM has limited capacity to store info for around 7 items- held for as long as attention is held
. STM is limited to amount of time that info can be stored < 1 minute
. Info can also be held in STM through chunking
. Example: instead of trying to remember each separate move made by each player in a line out in rugby, a player might remember the whole drill as a single number.
. Long term memory (LTM):
. Contains well-learned, retained and permanent coded information collected over past experiences
. LTM is limitless in capacity, length or retention e.g learning to ride a bike
. Well-learned and rehearsed movement skills from STM will eventually be stored in LTM as motor programmes for future use
. Relevant info from LTM can be retrieved into STM workspace to be used for comparison , to identify stimuli (perception), for decision making or when selecting appropriate motor programmes.
. Advantages and disadvantages of Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi store memory model:
. Advantages:
> Simplifies memory process
> Explains how those with brain damage may have a dysfunctional memory or amnesia
. Disadvantages;
> Too simplified- doesn’t explain why we remember different sorts of info
> Doesn’t prove distinction between STM and LTM and their interaction
. Describe Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing model:
. Include: description and the 3 things
. This approach is used to explain how memory works and opposes view that there are set memory stores
. It seeks to explain what we do with info rather than how it’s stored- meaning of info is more relevant than repetition in this approach
info received by brain will be transferred to LTM (and remembered) if it is:
. Considered
. Understood
. Has meaning (related to past memories)
.Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing model part :
. Include:
. Depth of processing
. 3 levels of processing of verbal info
. Practical example
. Depth of processing= how much info is considered
. The deeper the info is processed, the longer the memory trace will last
. 3 levels related to processing of verbal info:
> Structural processing: paying attention to what words look like (shallow processing level)
> Phonetic level: processing words and sounds
> Semantic level: considering actual meaning of words (deepest level of processing)
. Practical example: gymnastics coach explains why it’s important to tuck in a somersault to ensure greater rotation. Performer is more likely to understand why tuck is important and therefore likely to remember it.
. Advantages and disadvantages of the levels of processing model:
. Advantages:
> Explains that if we understand info, we are like to remember if
> Explains that the longer we consider and analyse info, the more we remember it
. Disadvantages:
> The longer it takes to process info doesn’t always lead to better recall
> Difficult to know what ‘deeper’ processing involved
> It doesn’t take into account individual differences
. Relate both memory models to learning and performance of physical activity skills:
. Ways memory can be improved:
> Rehearsal- tennis player will rehearse a serve physically and mentally
> Meaningfulness- tennis coach will show that coaching info being given will raise the player’s performance levels
> Association- tennis coach will show players new info regarding serve technique as an adaptation of old serve, learning whole new skill isn’t required
> Avoiding overload- tennis coach will only give the player a few points to remember before the match
> Organising info- trampolinist will remember complex sequence by mentally putting together small moves to make bigger ones
> Mental imagery- trampoline coach demonstrates move or shows video of sequence so that the performer can remember it effectively
