Sport Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
What is the key factor about personality?
A
That it is a person’s temperament which is particular to each performer
2
Q
What are the two theories that are debated about the source of our personality?
A
The Nature Approach - genetically determined
The Nurture Approach - product of your environment
3
Q
What does the Trait Theory suggest?
A
That performers possess stable traits which are inherited. They are innate, consistent and predict your behavior
4
Q
What are the two dimensions within the Nature approach/Trait theory?
A
- Extrovert-Introvert dimension
2. Stable-Neurotic dimension
5
Q
What is the Extrovert-Introvert dimension?
A
Based on the Reticular Activating System (RAS) whereby individuals attempt to create a certain level of stimulation.
6
Q
Extroverts seek out…
A
extra arousal and stimulation as the RAS inhibits information via the sensory system
7
Q
Characteristics of an extrovert include…
A
sociable, outgoing, talkative, optimistic
8
Q
Introverts seek out…
A
less arousal and stimulation as their RAS is already stimulated
9
Q
Characteristics of an introvert include…
A
quiet, passive, reserved, careful
10
Q
What does the RAS do?
A
Reticular Activating System lets in information that is deemed to be important
11
Q
Which theorist came up the Nature Approach?
A
Hollander
12
Q
What is the Stable-Neurotic Dimension based on?
A
Emotions and the reaction of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) to stressful situations
13
Q
Stable performers tend to have…
A
a slow response to stressful situations as they are controlled and even-tempered
14
Q
Neurotic performers tend to have…
A
rapid reactions to stressful situations as they are touchy, excitable and impulsive - often aggressive
15
Q
What does the ANS do?
A
The Autonomic Nervous System controls the internal organs an therefore the performers somatic feeling’s and emotional reactions
16
Q
Evaluation (A03) of Trait Theories?
A
- Often criticized for being too simplistic as they do not account for personality changes over time.
- It also does not take in to account environmental factors
- Limited in accuracy for predicting sporting success
17
Q
What does the Nature Approach relate to?
A
Trait Theory
18
Q
What does the Nurture Approach relate to?
A
Social Learning
19
Q
What is Social Learning based on?
A
The idea that we copy what we observe and experience , particularly if this personality is reinforced by society and exhibited by a role model.
(E.g. a specific football trick Messi may complete may cause children to copy also)
20
Q
What does the idea of Social Learning link to in Paper 1?
A
Bandura’s model of Observational Learning - ARMM
21
Q
What theory proposes that personality is a mixture of inherited traits and a person’s current situation?
A
The Interactionist Theory
22
Q
What does the Interactionist theory explain?
A
Why we alter out behavior from one moment to the next and this is dependent on our current situation
23
Q
If the situational factor is strong (e.g. highly competitive and high extrinsic rewards) which behavior has the greatest influence over the performer?
A
The environment (Social Learning)
24
Q
If the situational factor is not strong (e.g. recreational game and for fun) which behavior has the greatest influence over the performer?
A
Personality (Trait Theory)
25
What is a common equation put forward by Lewin to understand the reason for a type of behavior in a certain situation?
```
B = f (PE)
**************
B = behavior
f = function (situation)
P = personality
E = environment
```
26
What are the two Interactionist Theories of personality?
- Lewin's equation = based on situation
| - Hollander's model
27
What is Hollander's Model of personality?
1. Psychological Core = The real you, your beliefs/values/attitudes that are difficult to change
2. Typical Responses =Your usual reaction to a situation, learned, confidence
3. Role-related behavior = behavior at any given time, changeable, 'out of character'
28
A03 - how can a coach change certain behaviour's?
- They could predict any unfavourable behaviour and remove a performer from the situation
- They could identify aspects of a behaviour to be changed (e.g. making an aggressive player more assertive). This would encourage performers to adapt their behaviour in specific situations
29
What is meant by 'attitude'?
A way somebody reacts in persons to a situation based on their beliefs/values
30
What is an attitude object?
The focus of an individual's attitude which may be training, people, events, idea's or a specific object
31
How does Tiandis suggest attitudes are formed through the Triadic Model (CAB)?
```
Cognitive = what you think about something
Affective = how you feel about something
Behaviour = what you actually do
```
32
Give an example of a positive attitude using CAB related to a football player?
```
Cognitive = THINKING they should attend practice
Affective = they FEEL enjoyment from the activity
Behaviour = they train regularly as a result of this and are always available to play matches
```
33
How can attitudes be formed?
```
Through:
> Past Experiences = success of failure
> Social Learning = observing role models
> Conditioning = rewards
> Familiarity = frequent exposure
```
34
A03 - what are some area's that may form negative attitudes?
```
> Negative past experiences
> Failure
> Negative role models
> Fear of injury
> Low self-confidence
> High task difficulty
> Lack of support from friends/family
```
35
Give two theories based on changing attitudes?
1. Persuasive Communication
| 2. Cognitive Dissonance
36
What does the theory Persuasive Communication state?
```
That in order for attitudes to change:
> done by an expert
> be of high quality information
> given at an appropriate time
> depends on the performers level of resistance to change
```
37
Name some schemes, in relation to Persuasive Communication Theory, that have attempted to change behaviour
- 100% ME
- School Sport Champions
- Sport Activator
- Sky Sport Living for Sport
38
What does the theory Cognitive Dissonance state?
Changes to attitudes will occur through challenging existing beliefs and creating conflicts in the performers thoughts and feelings
by. ..
- pointing out the benefits of an activity
- change how they feel by making the experience fun
- change their behaviour by allowing success, give rewards
39
Give an example in sport today of the Cognitive Dissonance theory?
Tough Mudder - which tests mental stability and requires huge amounts of self-motivation for a performer to complete it
40
Give the impact of changing negative attitudes on future performances
A more positive attitude:
1. Increases self-motivation to try harder
2. Increases team spirit, more cohesion
3. Increases happiness in the sport making it easier to train
41
Arousal is...
a physical and mental state of alertness
42
What are the two things arousal can be?
```
Cognitive = thought processes
Somatic = change in the body's response
```
43
The level of arousal is controlled by the RAS which stands for?
Reticular Activating System
44
As arousal increases, the quality of performance also increases
Drive Theory
45
As arousal increases, so does the quality of performance up to an optimal point. After this performances decrease
Inverted U Theory
46
As arousal increases, so does the quality of performance up to an optimal point which then it will decrease sharply/dramatically
Catastrophe
47
The idea that some performers have a wider range of optimal arousal compared to others
the Zone of Optimal Functioning (ZOF)
48
The impact of arousal can cause:
- A drop in performance
- A decrease in selective attention
- Attentional narrowing, focus on just the relevant
- Attentional wastage, focus on the irrelevant
49
Reasons for arousal include...
Anxiety
Evaluation Apprehension - fear of being judged
Social inhibition
50
Influences of arousal?
> Stage of Learning: cognitive = low, autonomous = high
> Personality: extrovert = high, introvert = low
> Task difficulty: complex = low, simple = high
> Muscle size: gross = high, fine = low
51
List some sports that require high levels of arousal?
100m sprint, long jump, boxing
52
Kist some sports that require low levels of arousal?
Archery, golf, darts
53
Sports performers sometimes experience a situation when the timing of movements and actions appear perfect - ultimate intrinsic experience. What is this called?
Peak Flow Experience
54
These ultimate intrinsic feelings are...
| CASE
```
C = clear goals and confidence
A = automatic movement
S = selective attention is good
E = effortless movement
```
55
What theories came up with the Peak Flow Theory?
Csikszentmihalyi
56
Which topic in Paper 1 does the Peak Flow Experience relate to?
Characteristics of skill = ACEFACE (red pack)
57
What is anxiety?
A negative emotional state associated with feelings of apprehension and worry caused by over-arousal due to a performer feeling stressed
58
A type of anxiety that is innate, stable, predictable and where a performer views ALL sporting situations as threatening
Competitive Trait
59
A type of anxiety that changes dependent on the situation, temporary, linked to mood
Competitive State
60
A type of anxiety that is linked to psychological reponses such as irrational thoughts, self-doubt, lack of concentration, worry
Cognitive
61
A type of anxiety that is linked to physical responses such as increased sweating, heart rate and breathing rate as well as muscular tension
Somatic
62
Give the three ways anxiety can be measured?
1. Observations - watching a performer
2. Self-report questionnaires - SCAT test
3. Physiological measures - testing heart rate
63
What are the pro's and con's of Observations as a measurement of anxiety?
+ portrays a true picture of the athlete = realistic
- need to be skilled, results may be questionable and subjective
- time consuming
- behaviour can fluctuate, specially when being watched
64
What are the pro's and con's of Self-report questionnaires as a measurement of anxiety?
+ cheap, quick, readily available
| - questions could be misunderstood, inaccurate, performer could lie, response dependent on mood
65
What are the pro's and con's of Physiological measures as a measurement of anxiety?
+ Measures actual heart rate, somatic response
| - bad in competitive situations as the device itself may cause further stress
66
Feelings of pressure which have a negative effect on an athlete
Stress
67
An environmental change that creates stress for the performer
Stressor
68
Give some uses of stress management techniques for warmup
Visualization = promotes confidence, success
Mental Rehearsal = real time
Imagery = relaxation
Thought Stopping = concentration increase (boxer)
Positive self-talk = increase confidence (rugby player)
Biofeedback = monitor HR before a race (cyclist)
Breathing control = to calm down (archery)
69
Explain in more detail about Visualization in a sporting situation as a good stress management technique?
Create a mental picture of themselves being successful in the football match, such as them carrying out a perfect penalty. This technique would cause internal feelings of success and external feelings of seeing themselves competing the action. This would make the footballer feel more relaxed and comfortable in the situation
70
What is psychological skills training (PST)?
An individually designed programme based on psychological qualities that an athlete may need to develop
71
Name four Somatic stress management techniques
1. Breathing control
2. Biofeedback
3. Centring = inner body relaxation
4. Progressive Muscular Relaxation
72
An athlete goes over the sprint tart in their head to see themselves successfully leaving the blocks. Identify the type of stress management technique used
Visualisation
73
Self-confidence....
is a persons belief in their ability to achieve success
74
If a person has high self-confidence (what you think) they are likely to...
- try harder
- take more risks
- display approach behaviour
- most likely to win
- develop a performers self-esteem (what you feel)
75
Self-efficacy is...
a perception or self-belief in your own ability to cope with the demands of a situation
76
What theorist suggests the four key factors that contribute to the development of self-efficacy?
Bandura
77
What four factors does Bandura suggest that can 'knock' or 'boost' self confidence levels in a specific situation?
> Performance Accomplishments = what you have already achieved
> Vicarious Experience = seen it happen, feel you've experienced it but it didn't directly happen to you
> Verbal Persuasion = what people have said to you
> Emotional Arousal = feelings of readiness
78
The individual performer's level of self-efficacy can affect the:
- Choice of activity
- Amount of effort applied
- Level of persistence
- Level of approach behaviour or avoidance behaviour
79
What should a coach do yo develop high levels of self-efficacy?
- Praise the performer post-match/training
- Allow success by making tasks easier
- Avoid failure
- Improve fitness levels
- Encourage positive self-talk
- Set goals
- Give 1-to-1 support
80
What is the name of the theorist who invented the model of self-confidence?
Vealey
81
What does Vealey argue about self-confidence?
It is dependent on the performer's competitive orientation - the degree at which the performer is willing to face challenges
(e.g. if a performer had high levels of competitive orientation they would have high levels of Trait confidence to attempt a high tariff level voluntary routine)
82
What is Trait confidence?
A consistent level of confidence shown in a RANGE of sporting situations. This is stable and innate
83
What is State confidence?
A temporary belief in their ability to master a SPECIFIC sporting situation - in a particular sport at the moment in time. This is unstable and can change
84
What is the objective sporting situation?
The combination of the type of skill being performed and the situation the performer is in
85
Trait Sports Confidence + the Objective Sporting Situation + Competitive Orientation =
State sports confidence > performance > subjective outcome
86
What is a Subjective outcome?
How the performer feels the performance went, how did it feel = intrinsic or extrinsic feedback
87
The intent to harm outside of the rules
Aggression
88
Give an example of aggression in football
A bad tackle with the intent to harm by standing on another players leg
89
Playing with physical endeavor but within the rules of the game - there is no intent to harm
Assertion
90
Give an example of assertion in football
pushing/shoving another player to try and in the ball in a 1 on 1
91
This is a cause of aggression that is innate, where you are born with aggressive traits and build up of aggression leads to cathartic release
Instinct Theory - Nature
92
This is a cause of aggression that is learnt through observations and vicarious experience and occurs when behaviour goes unpunished
Social Learning Theory - Nurture
93
This is a cause of aggression where something triggers the aggression, usually blocked goals leading to frustration/retaliation
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
94
This is a cause of aggression a blocked goal means the player is 'ready' for an aggressive act at socially desirable time, such as when the referee isn't looking
Aggressive Cue Theory
95
To control aggression, a referee could...
- talk to/warn players
- apply the rules fairly
- punish aggressive behaviour
- give immediate sanctions
96
To control aggression, an NGB could...
- educate through campaigns
- develop a code of conduct and promote it
- reward fair play
- deduct points/ punish aggressive behaviour
- ban/fine players
97
To control aggression, a coach/manager could...
- substitute players
- encourage assertive behaviour
- encourage team players
- make the event less important
- develop fitness/skill of performer
98
Motivation is...
the desire to succeed
99
Name the two types of motivation and give an example
> Intrinsic - from within the performer
e.g. self-satisfaction/self-worth
> Extrinsic - from outside the performer
e.g. praise given by the coach/crowd
100
What are the two FORMS motivation can come in?
1. Tangible = these physically exist such as a trophy
| 2. Intangible = cannot physically be held such as praise
101
What is the purpose of Extrinsic rewards? are they good or bad?
(A03)
Extrinsic rewards can lay the foundation for future motivation by attracting newcomers to activities, but if rewards are continually given, then the performer might begin to perform just to get the reward and lose the enjoyment of sport.
> Also if the performer fails to achieve the reward, it may lead to loss of motivation and may lead to cheating due to pressure to win
102
Why is intrinsic motivation thought to be a better from of motivation?
As it only relies on the performer themselves for self-worth as they personally may have felt they performed well, rather than being compared to others
103
A coach could improve a performer's motivation by:
- making it fun
- varying training
- allow success
- use role models
- give positive feedback
- set goals/targets
- give praise
104
What are the two types of goals within the Achievement Goal Theory?
1. Outcome orientated - placing
| 2. Task orientated - standards
105
What is an Outcome orientated goal?
Where the performer is compared to others and judged against their placing in the event/league - these have more of an extrinsic orientation
106
What is a Task orientated goal?
Where the performer is judged on task mastery and against standards such as time in 100m sprint or distance in throwing the javelin - this is intrinsically driven
107
Which type of goal is better for the development of a performer?
Task orientated goal is more adaptive than Outcome orientated goal. Task relates to the selection of challenging tasks whereas Outcome is often associated with easier tasks.
108
Which theories came up with the model of Achievement Motivation?
Atkinson
109
Achievement motivation =
desire to succeed - fear of failure
110
What can the motivation of a performer influence?
- Task persistence
- Whether they'll take up the challenge
- Stability of personality
111
What are the two factors that contribute to a performer's level of achievement motivation?
1. Personality = nAch or nAf
| 2. Situation = probability of success and incentive value of success
112
What is a nAch personality?
- High need to achieve
- Quick completion of task
- Enjoy performing in front of others
- Take responsibility for their own actions
- Prepared to take risks
- Pride, bold, optimistic, confident
- Attribute performance to INTERNAL factors (ability + effort)
113
What is a nAf personality?
- Need to avoid failure
- Choose easy tasks
- Five up easily
- Lack confidence
- Attribute performance to EXTERNAL factors (task difficulty + luck)
- Worry about failure
- Dislike feedback
114
A nAch personality is likely to show.................behaviour and a nAf personality is likely to show.............behaviour
1. nAch = approach
| 2. nAf = avoidance
115
How can approach behaviour be developed in a team?
| A03
- Allow success
- Gradually increase task difficulty
- Set challenging but achievable goals
- Give feedback
- Limit punishment
- Encourage risk taking
- Use praise/reinforcement
116
What theories came up with the idea of Social Facilitation and Inhibition?
Zajonc
117
What does BEDPOO stand for?
Behavioural Effects Due to the Presence Of Others - Zajonc's theory
118
What is:
1. Social Facilitation
2. Social Inhibition
????
1. The influence of the presence of others on performance, which has a positive effect
(e. g. a performer may play better when teammates are watching - usually Autonomous learners)
2. The negative influence on performance caused by the presence of others
(e. g. a performer may panic when a national selection programme are wt aching - usually Cognitive learners)
119
In a situation when a crowd is watching, what would the outcome by for a elite performer?
1. It would increase their motivation
2. Then the CORRECT dominant response would occur
3. Performance improves
4. Social Facilitation has occurred
(this is more likely in gross/simple skills)
120
In a situation when a crowd is watching, what would the outcome by for a novice performer?
1. Cause Evaluation Apprehension (worrying)
2. The INCORRECT dominant response would occur
3. Performance decreases
4. Social Inhibition occurs
(this is more likely in fine/complex skills)
121
What is Evaluation Apprehension?
The perception from a performer that he or she is being judged which is more severe when experts or friends of the performer are watching
122
Who does Zajonc suggest are the four different groups of 'others' that influence performance levels?
1. Audience
2. Co-actors (teammates)
^ Passive, less direct influence
3. Competitors ( opposition)
4. Supporters ( coaches/managers)
^ Interactive, more direct influence
123
What does Baron's distraction-conflict theory suggest a performer must do?
> Focus their attention to the task and ignore the distraction created by the crowd.
> When the performer however selectively attends to the task, conflict is created due to competing demands and limited information processing space. This leads to increased arousal and either Social Facilitation or Inhibition
124
Give examples of strategies to eliminate Social Inhibition
- Use mental rehearsal
- Improve selective attention
- Use goal setting
- Use stress management techniques
- Increase fitness levels
- Ensure the CORRECT dominant response will occur
- Avoid social comparison
125
What is the definition of a 'group'?
A collective number of people who communicate to achieve a common goal
126
What characteristics does Carron suggest a group need to have to be classed as a 'group'?
- Two or more people interacting
- A shared common interest/goal
- Share a collective identity
- Structured forms of communication
127
What are the four key stages Tuckman suggested that groups go through as part of their development?
1. Forming
2. Storming
3. Norming
4. Performing
5. Adjourning
128
A 'quiet' stage where group members are reserved and fromal
Forming
129
A 'noisy' stage where there may be conflict as members try and establish their status within the group
Storming
130
A stage where the group gains stability, they are co-operative and norms are agreed
Norming
131
A stage where the team work together towards a common goal with each member having their own individual role int he group - cohesion is developed
Performing
132
A stage were the task has come to an end and and the group breaks up
Adjourning
133
What does Cohesion refer to?
The degree to which members of a team unite to achieve successes
134
What are the two types of cohesion in a group?
1. Task Cohesion = group members work together to achieve a common goal
2. Social Cohesion = group members get along to achieve a common goal
135
Why can Social Cohesion undermine performance of a group?
Due to social cliques that may form and team members may not wish to challenge poor performance in fear of upsetting others
136
What factors does Carron suggest that contributes to the effectiveness of a group?
MELT factors:
Member factors = ability/motivation levels
Environmental factors = size of the group
Leadership factors = relationship in the team
Team factors = stability of the team
137
Suggest strategies a football coach could use to improve cohesion in a team
M - Ensure individuals know their own roles
E - Understand tactics between group members
L - Give feedback (players to each other)
T - Limit change of the team
138
When group members are involved in working together in an organised way
Co-ordination
139
When group members communicate with one another
Interaction
140
........................model of Group Productivity
Steiner's
141
Actual productivity =
| what actually happened/outcome
potential productivity - losses due to faulty processes
| best possible outcome) - (things that go wrong
142
What are the factors for the best possible performance/Potential Productivity?
- Task Cohesion
- Talent
- Interaction
- Motivation
- Leadership
- Stability
143
What are the factors that lead to faulty processes?
> Co-ordination losses:
- Lack of teamwork, poor cohesion, ineffective communication, poor execution of tactics
> Motivational losses:
- Losing concentration, under/over arousal, loss of motivation, low self-efficacy
144
What are the negative impacts of faulty processes on group productivity?
1. If co-ordination losses are evident, team does not execute the tactics correctly
2. If task cohesion decreases, actual productivity decreases
3. If social cohesion is poor, social cliques form
4. Social Loafing and the Ringlemann Effect will also reduce group productivity
145
What is Social Loafing?
- The lack of effort by individual team members who 'hide' within a team. This is due to:
- individual not being recognised
- no rewards
- poor leadership is evident
- perception of team mates lacking effort
- perception of a lack of personal ability
146
How can a coach solve Social Loafing?
| motivational faulty process
1. Highlight each players role/importance
2. Using encouragement and reinforcement
3. Attribute success to internal factors
4. Set players specific roles/responsibilities
5. Set challenging but realistic targets
147
What does the Ringlemann Effect suggest?
| motivational faulty process
As group size increases, the individual contribution decreases and cohesion may decrease
148
General strategies to overcome faulty processes and increase group productivity
C - A team must practice so all players know tactics
M - Specific roles explained to whole team
M - Feedback given to all players (video analysis)
C - Team bonding exercises
C - Social cliques to be avoided
M - Develop players self-efficacy
M- practices should be varied
M- Fitness levels improved
```
(M = overcoming motivational)
(C = overcoming co-ordination)
```
149
A type of goal based on the 'end result' and ranking/position in the event
Outcome goal
| e.g. I would like to make podium position in the 3000m
150
A goal related to improving technique set against standards
Task-Orientated goal
| e.g. to run my 3000m in less than 11 m 26 seconds which is the qualifying time
151
A goal related to previous achievements/PB's
Performance goal
| e.g to beat my PB of 11m 18 seconds
152
A goal related to improving tactics/technique
Process goal
| e.g. improve pacing by ensuring i am positioned in top 5 in first 3 laps
153
A goal that is focused on a 2-3 week period
Short-Term goal
154
A goal that is focused on months/years
Long-Term goal
155
Benefits of goal setting include...
* improved confidence
* increased motivation
* increased task persistence
* increased satisfaction
156
Which goals are the best type for a performers development?
Performance and Process goals are better as they are about technique and the individuals PB's rather than being compared to others. They are more beneficial to the performers mental well being, more rewarding and increase confidence of performer
157
Benefits of Outcome orientated goals (RANK) and Task-orientated goals (STANDARDS) ??
```
Outcome = measurable, easy to see when achieved
Task = something to aim towards, challenge, icnraeses motivation
```
158
What are the SMARTER principles?
Specific - to performer
Measurable - quantitative data
Achievable - within performers capabilities
Realistic - not too difficult to maintain motivation
Time Bound - target is reached quickly
Evaluate - reflect on methods used and success rate
Re-do - to adjust if necessary
159
What is Attribution?
Perceived reasons for the success or failure of an event or pattern of behaviour
160
What does Weiner's Attribution theory suggest the four causalities are?
- Ability (internal) + (Stable)
- Effort (Internal) + (Unstable)
- Task difficulty (External) + (Stable)
- Luck (External) + (Unstable)
161
Give an example of Luck and Effort in a match situation?
```
Luck = unfair referee
Effort = not challenging on a tackle
```
162
What is Attributional Retraining?
by which a performer learns to attribute failure to external factors rather than internal factors
163
What should coaches use to protect a performer's self-esteem?
Self-serving bias
164
What is self-serving bias?
Where a coach should blame losing on external factors such as Luck and Task Difficulty (these factors are outside the performer's control) and account for winning on internal factors, such as high ability and high effort levels
165
Why would a coach use self-serving bias?
- To maintain self-esteem
- Increases motivation
- Increase self-confidence
- Encourages reinforcement
- Increase task persistence for future matches/games
- avoid Learned helplessness
166
What is Learned helplessness?
Saying you will not be able to be successful before you even try - this can be general or specific to a certain skill
167
What can Learned helplessness be caused by and what does it lead to happen?
Caused by performer attributing wrong factors to failure and can lead to a performer 'giving up' even when success is possible/leads to avoidance behaviour
168
What is the difference between General and Specific learned helplessness?
```
General = think that failure is inevitable in ALL sports
Specific = lacks confidence in CERTAIN sports
```
169
Give e.g's of General and Specific learned helplessness in sport?
```
General = a performer feeling they are not good at all racket sports
Specific = a striker in football feeling learned helplessness when defending/tackling
```
170
What is the opposite of Learned helplessness?
Mastery Orientation
171
Strategies to avoid the development of Learned Helplessness and encourage mastery orientation
- Enabling performers to achieve success
- Remind of previous successes
- Use Attribution Retraining
- Try to set performance goals (technique/PB's) rather than outcome goals (ranking/place)
- Use positive feedback and give 1-to-1 support
- Use cognitive stress management techniques
- Avoid social comparisons
172
What is the role of a leader?
- to direct behaviour of others, influence their motivation and give guidance & feedback
173
Give some characteristics of an effective leader?
```
Excellent decision maker
Inspirational
Motivational
Adaptable
Excellent communicator
Visionary
```
174
Name the two TYPES of leaders and the differences between them?
> Emergent leaders = have group approval and are elected by team members (e.g. a captain)
> Prescribed leaders =appointed by an external body to lead the group (e.g. a football manager/coach)
175
What can the style of leadership be according to and give some e.g's?
The degree of decision-making:
> Autocratic - "task orientated"b - the leader makes all the decisions
> Democratic - "person orientated" - the leader listens to group members and involves them in decision-making
> Laissez-faire - "member-skill orientated" - the leader allows the group to make the decisions
176
What does Fiedler suggest?
Effectiveness of the leadership depends on the favour-ability of the situation within the group
177
What is classed as a 'favourable' situation?
1. The leader is respected by the group
2. The leader has a good relationship with group
3. The group is highly motivated
4. The group has high ability/success rate
5. The group have good resources/equipment
6. The group have clear tasks/roles
