Sport Psychology Flashcards
What is motivation?
It is the ‘direction and intensity of one’s effort’ - sage 1977
- Motivation changes depending on environmental and situational factors
- it is seen as a process where components of reward and punishment are incorporated (carrot and stick framework)
What does the traditional economic approach to motivation rely on and what is this approach supplanted by?
It relies on assumption of perfect rationality when weighing costs and benefits of engaging in particular actions
Supplanted by the bounded rationality perspective…
- money will not always motivate people to perform best (choking in golf etc)
What are the 2 approaches to motivation?
TRAIT - person centred view
- personality, needs, interests, goals
STATE - situational factors
- coaching style, environment, win-loss ratio
These 2 interact which determines participant motivation
Give a brief overview of what the SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY is about
Focus = extent to which behaviours such as sport and exercise participation are undertaken voluntarily
- not controlled by external agent (coach) or contingency (reward)
It’s a general theory on WHAT motivates people (as opposed to how)
What is the assumption of what motivates humans according self determination theory?
Assumption is that humans actively seek challenges and new learning experiences to master
- inherent tendency for growth is manifested within SDT through concept of intrinsic motivation
- world of sport use rewards extensively (money, trophies, medals)
According to the self determination theory, what are the 3 basic psychological needs? Explain them
- Autonomy - people need to feel in control of own behaviour + goals
- Competence - people need to gain mastery of tasks + learn different skills
- Relatedness - people need to feel belongingness + attachment to other people
- when a person experiences these 3 things, they are more self determined + intrinsically motivated
Describe the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
Intrinsic = participation in sport that is pleasurable + effort is based on enjoyment of competition, excitement or desire to learn
Extrinsic = when sport involvement is driven by trophies, salaries, scholarships or approval of others
What are the 4 types of extrinsic motivation? Explain them
Integrated regulation = perform a task because they believe outcome aligns with needs and values
Identified regulation = for personally held values such as learning new skills
Introjected regulation = for avoiding external sources of disapproval or gaining externally referenced approval
External regulation = for external reinforcement such as gaining rewards or avoiding punishment
- if not intrinsically motivated, best to keep athletes at top 2
Give a brief overview of the achievement goal theory
Refers to understanding the role of competence or ability
- a theory of motivation that focuses on differences in how individuals evaluate competence and define success and failure
What are the 2 types of orientation of the achievement goal theory?
Task mastery orientation
Ego orientation
What are dispositional factors?
Individual characteristics that influence behaviour and actions
Describe task mastery orientation (achievement goal theory)
Performers take pride in progressive improvement of their knowledge and ability relative to own past performances
- self referenced
- focus on improving ability
- process orientation - one step at a time
Describe ego orientation (achievement goal theory)
Performers have intent on demonstrating superiority over others - motivated by social comparison
- others reference perception of competence
- current ability is important - superior to others, equal with less effort
- outcome orientation
Describe the focuses of performers in the following scenarios
- High ego, low task
- High ego, high task
- Low ego, low task
- Low ego, high task
- Anxiety, focus on winning
- Focus on winning or what it takes to win, uses feedback constructively
- Disinterested, low perceived ability
- Low anxiety, high enjoyment
What is the motivational climate - what are the 2 categories?
Environment values winning over improvement
- Mastery (task-involving) climate
- focus on individual improvement, effort and cooperative learning - Performance (ego-involving) climate
- highlighted by competition, outperforming others, viewing mistakes as failures and achieving success with minimal effort
What did Epstein (1989) outline with regards to motivational climate?
- mastery orientation climate
TARGET
T = tasks - challenging + diverse
A = authority - students given choices + leadership roles
R = recognition - private + based on individual progress
G = grouping - promotion of cooperative learning + peer interaction
E = evaluation - based on mastery of tasks + individual improvement
T = time - requirements adjusted to capabilities
What did Epstein (1989) outline with regards to motivational climate?
- performance climate
TARGET
T = tasks - absence of variety + challenge
A = authority - student not involved in DM
R = recognition - public + based on social comparison
G = grouping - groups are formed based on ability
E = evaluation - based on winning / out-performing others
T = time - allocated for learning is uniform to all
- manipulating the TARGET to support the development of a mastery-orientated motivation climate have also been shown to significantly impact motivational climate
Briefly overview the attribution theory
Attributions = specific causes used to explain outcome/ behaviour
- may not be actual cause but perceived to be the cause
Can effect expectations and emotional reactions - influence future achievements motivation
What are the 4 attributions + 2 dimensions of the attribution theory?
4 attributions = ability, effort, task difficulty, luck
2 dimensions =
- locus of stability
- stable = ability + task difficulty
- unstable = effort + luck - Locus of causality
- internal = ability, effort
- external = luck, task difficulty
Describe the differences in what high and low performers attribute success/ failure to
High:
- attribute success to INTERNAL factors - ability, effort
- attribute failure to EXTERNAL factors - task difficulty, luck
- develop approach behaviours = want to carry on
Low:
- attribute success to EXTERNAL factors - task difficulty, luck
- attribute failure to INTERNAL factors - ability, effort
- develop avoidance behaviours = excuses not to go
What’s the difference between self-concept + self-esteem?
Self-concept = what we know about ourselves
Self-esteem - what we feel about ourselves
Athletes with poor self esteem… [4]
- Rely on how they are doing in present to determine how they feel about themselves
- Success doesn’t heighten SE - sustains them
- Attributes negative events internally + are less resilient + less consistent
- Failure has a more significant impact on future performances
Athletes with high self-esteem… [4]
- Future performances less affected by failure
- Maintain positive self-worth regardless of performance
- Perform more consistently at higher levels
- Accept + value themselves as worthy + worthwhile without conditions or reservations (can cope with failure)
What is self confidence - is there a sport confidence definition as well?
“A belief about our ability to be successful”
Sport - “the belief or degree of certainty individuals possess about their ability to be successful in sport” (Vealey, 1986)
Self confidence is multidimensional…
What are the aspects?
Confidence about ones ability to…
- execute physical skills
- use psychological skills
- use perceptual skills
- learn and improve skills
- ones level of physical fitness + training status
(Vealey + Knight, 2002)
Explain trait and state self confidence
Trait = how confident you are in your abilities in general (stable, consistent)
State = how confident you feel right now (temporary, unstable)
List some of the benefits of self-confidence
Characterised by a high expectancy of success which can influence affect, behaviour and cognition
- arouses positive affect
- Facilitates concentration
- affects goals
- increases effort
- affects game strategies
- affects psychological momentum
- affects performance
What is optimal confidence described as?
Being so convinced that you can achieve your goals that you will strive so hard to do so
- however confidence will not overcome incompetence
How does a lack of self-confidence undermine performance?
Athletes will become…
- less effective thinkers
- More negative attitudes
- tendency to give up more easily
- avoid challenging situations + opportunities
- more focused on outcome + consequences
= anxiety, distraction, indecisiveness
What are the 2 types of overconfidence? Describe them
Inflated confidence
- believe they are better than they are
- overestimate ability / underestimate opponents
- often competent but don’t adequately prepare
False confidence
- confident outside
- inside = fear failure + pretend to be brash, cocky + arrogant
- prepare hard but lack competence to be successful
What 3 things could athletes do to deal with overconfidence?
- Take games/ competitions seriously
- Respect opponents + don’t underestimate ability
- Hard work, effort, skills, determination + confidence are needed
Explain the link between success and confidence
Generally nothing succeeds like success BUT
- athletes may lose confidence as post success = pressure
- may focus on weaknesses + remember failure
- feel demoralised when achievements do not match confidence
What is self-fulfilling prophecy?
A predication that sets in motion a series of events that ultimately causes the original prediction to become true
- expectation from self, winning or losing, coaches, parents, team-mates, fans etc
What are the 2 types of self-fulfilling prophecy?
Negative self-fulfilling prophecy = expect failure = actual failure, lowering self-image and expectations of future failure
Positive self-fulfilling prophecy = expecting desired outcome + performance
REMEMBER: EXPECTING SOMETHING TO HAPPEN ACTUALLY HELPS CAUSE IT TO HAPPEN
What are some ways to build self-confidence?
- have performance accomplishments
- retrospections - look at past successes
- acting confident
- thinking confidently
- imagery
- goal setting
- preparation
What’s the definition of self-efficacy?
The perceptions of one’s ability to perform a task successfully in a specific situation
- this is situation specific as opposed to self-confidence which is global/ generalised
- explains why peoples behaviours are sometimes disjointed from actual capabilities + why behaviours differ between people with similar skills
What’s the assumption of the self-efficacy theory?
The primary mediator of behaviour/ behaviour change is self-efficacy
SELF-EFFICACY THEORY
Adoption and persistence behaviours are determined by…
- Expectations about ones skills + capabilities to engage successfully in specific target behaviour of in specific situations (SE EXPECTANCY)
- Expectations about outcomes (OUTCOME EXPECTANCY)
- Value placed on those outcomes (OUTCOME VALUE)
Describe the 3 following scenarios of the self efficacy theory…
- High SE
- High SE and fails
- Low SE
- Higher the goals, the more persistence one shows towards reaching those goals
- Will attribute failure to insufficient effort and be more likely to persist
- Attribute failure to low ability + more likely to give up
What are the 6 sources of self-efficacy?
- Performance accomplishments
- Vicarious experiences
- Verbal persuasion
- Imaginal experiences
- Physiological states
- Emotional states
SOURCE OF SELF-EFFICACY 1
Describe performance accomplishments
Strongest source as based on actual experiences
- success raises efficacy expectations
- failures lower efficacy expectations
SOURCE OF SELF-EFFICACY 2
Describe vicarious experiences
Observing others succeed or fail may influence efficacy beliefs - GOOD FOR BEGINNERS
- social comparison can be beneficial as sometimes cannot measure success without a point of reference
- images of individuals who are similar to target group + elite athletes as role models
SOURCE OF SELF-EFFICACY 3
Describe verbal persuasion
WEAKEST FORM - weaker influence than prior success, performance, attainment, imitation and modelling
- characterised by encouragement, reinforcement + feedback
- its effectiveness is also reliant on how realistic feedback may be
SOURCE OF SELF-EFFICACY 4
Describe imaginal experiences
How well you can create pictures
- visualising yourself behaving successfully in future situation
SOURCE OF SELF-EFFICACY 5
Describe physiological states
Condition of the body - HR, breathing, sweating, body temp etc
- self efficacy is related to how one evaluates physiological states
- facilitative = SE will be enhanced
- debilitative = lowered SE
SOURCE OF SELF-EFFICACY 6
Describe emotional states
Physiological cues can lead to emotional responses
- this can be an additional source of self-efficacy based on interpretation
- positive emotional states = enhanced efficacy judgements
How does Gould et al (2002) describe arousal?
A general physiological and psychological activation varying on a continuum from deep sleep to intense excitement
- determined by psychological processes such as emotions which depend on high cognitive functions like thoughts
An increased level of mental excitement and alertness leads to…
A state of being excited and keep mentally + physically ready
What are the different theories of arousal?
- Drive theory
- Inverted-U hypothesis
- Catastrophe theory
- IZOF
Describe the drive theory of arousal
Proposed by Hull, 1943
- a proportional, linear relationship
- the more you are psyched up = the better the performance
- increase drive (arousal) increases likelihood of dominant response
- beginners = worse performance as dominant response is wrong
What is the key weakness of the drive theory?
Highly skilled players also ‘choke’ in highly pressure situations which isn’t explained through this theory
Describe the responses of under-arousal
- athletes will underperform
- could be due to lack of drive / determination
- may not be excited or focused enough so performance declines
Describe the responses of over-arousal
- feel stressed, anxious / nervous
- could become psyched out by opposition
- physical symptoms include - increased HR, sweating + nausea
- more mistakes are made = decreased performance
Describe the inverted-U hypothesis
Proposed by Yerkes + Dobson, 1908
It predicts performance will increase as arousal increases BUT
- its up to an optimal point
- further increases in arousal = decreases in performance = ‘over-arousal’
- under-arousal- has negative effects on performance
What are the weaknesses regarding inverted-u hypothesis?
Is optimal arousal at the midpoint?
What’s the nature of arousal itself?
What is arousal - both ‘in general’ and ‘in sport’ definitions
In general = a negative emotional state with feelings of nervousness, worry and apprehension associated with activation or arousal of the body (Weinberg + Gould, 2011)
In sport = an unpleasant psychological state in reaction to perceived stress concerning the performance of a task under pressure (Cheng et al, 2009)
Describe trait vs state anxiety
Trait - aspect of personality - individual will experience anxiety no matter the situation
State - how you feel right now - situation specific (multidimensional)
What is state anxiety split into?
Cognitive anxiety + somatic anxiety
What is cognitive anxiety?
Concerned with the extent to which one worries/ has negative thoughts - psychological responses
- lack of self confidence
- disrupted attention
- worry, fear, doubt
- worrisome expectation of failure
- negative concerns about performance
- impaired concentration
What is somatic anxiety?
Concerned with the moment-to-moment changes in ones perception of psychological activation - physiological responses
- unusual feelings of nausea
- increased respiration rates, BP, muscle tension, perspiration
What causes anxiety?
Pressure - greater fear of failing in important situations
Uncertainty - unknown of success / failure
Fear of harm - injury or pain (in dangerous activities)
Frustration about not achieving targets
How did McGrath (1970) describe stress?
A substantial imbalance between demand [physical and/or psychological] and response capability, under conditions where failure to meet that demand has important consequences
What are the physiological responses to stress?
Fight or flight response…
- increased HR + perspiration
- inhibits peristalsis
- shivering / goose bumps
- dilated pupils
- glycogen to glucose
- (nor)adrenaline
Describe the 4 stages of the stress process…
- Environmental demand - physical + psychological demand
- Individuals perception of environmental demand - amount of psychological or physical ‘threat’ perceived
- Stress response - arousal, state anxiety, muscle tension, attention changes
- Behavioural consequences - performance or outcome
List + briefly explain the 4 sources of stress + anxiety
- Performance issues - performing to capabilities, self-doubts about talent, team selection
- Environmental issues - costs, travel, time for training
- Organisational issues - coaching leadership, communication
- Physical danger - traumatic experiences outside of sport
What is parental pressure (young athletes) + climates?
Traditional source of stress
- climate pressure perceived can alter its effects…
- High pressure in high ego motivational climate - increased perceptions of anxiety
- High pressure in high mastery motivational climate - decreased perceptions of anxiety
Describe what IZOF is
The Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning
- optimal arousal varies depending on individuals skills level, personality characteristics + nature of task
Describe the IZOF for…
- Fine skills
- Gross skills
- Fine skills require precision, accuracy + control
- athletes perform better at a lower level of arousal (archery, snooker) - Gross skills require large, powerful movements
- athletes need to be determined, focused and mentally + physically excited (rugby tackle, boxing)
What is the criticism of Hanin IZOF?
It doesn’t explain why individual levels of anxiety may be beneficial or detrimental to performance
What is the multidimensional anxiety theory?
Predicts different relationships between different components of anxiety + performance
- Cognitive anxiety - low = better performance + vice versa
- self-confidence - low = worse performance + vice versa
- somatic anxiety - inverted U - optimum at middle
What’s the criticism to the multidimensional anxiety theory?
It uses a rating scale on how athletes ‘feel’ themselves
- everyone’s perception + evaluation of these components is different
What is the catastrophe theory?
A 3D model focusing on the interactive effects of arousal, cognitive anxiety + performance (Hardy + Parfitt, 1991)
CATASTROPHE THEORY
Describe the following
- under conditions of low cognitive anxiety
- under conditions of high cognitive anxiety
- Inverted U of performance - optimum level
- As arousal increases, performance will increase in a steady pattern BUT over-arousal leads to sharp decline in performance = CATASTROPHE
After a catastrophic decline in performance, the athlete must…
- Completely relax physically
- Cognitively restructure or eliminate worries + regain confidence and control
- Reactivate themselves in a controlled manner to again reach optimal level of functioning
What are the 2 weaknesses of catastrophe theory?
X - 3D model so difficult to measure
X - a lot of research coming from 1 institute
List some of the many signs of arousal + state anxiety [14]
- cold, clammy hands
- urinate frequently
- profuse sweating
- negative self-talk
- dazed look
- increased muscle tension
- butterflies
- feeling ill
- headache
- cotton mouth
- difficultly sleeping
- constantly sick
- cant concentrate
- perform better in non-competitive situations
Distinguish between a group and a team
Group = collection of interacting individuals who have: a sense of shared purpose + mutual influence
Team = collective sense of identity, distinctive individual roles, structured modes of communication
According the Tuckman + Jenkins (1977), what are the stages of group development/ becoming a leader?
Forming -> Storming -> Norming -> Performing
Forming = familiarisation, social comparisons, strengths/ weaknesses
Storming = resistance (leader, group, interpersonal), infighting, establish roles/ status
Norming = conflict resolves, solidarity, cooperation, sense of unity, common goals
Performing = team success, problem solving, defined roles
What is group cohesion - Carron, Bradley and Widmeyer, 1988?
Tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in pursuit of common goals
Outline the conceptual model outlined by Carron, 1982 regarding group cohesion
What are the 4 factors?
4 factors to achieve cohesion…
- Personal = people sharing same values + wants for being there - but want cultural diversity
- Environmental = things around us, Human Resources, contract negotiations
- Leadership = style, coach / athlete personalities
- Team = productiveness, size, role clarity etc
What are the characteristics of cohesion?
- Multidimensional - numerous factors cause a group to stick together
- Dynamic - can change over time (especially with success and failure)
- Instrumental - groups stick together due to different reasons
What are the 2 types of cohesion, describe them
Task cohesion - degree to which members of a group work together to achieve common goal
Social cohesion - degree to which group members like each other and enjoy one another’s company
Finish the equation
Actual productivity =
Potential productivity - group process losses
Describe group process losses
Also known as the Ringlemann Effect…
- tendency for individual members of a group to become increasingly less productive as size of group increases
What are the 3 main causes of social loafing?
- ‘Free rider’ - perception that their effort is (relatively) unimportant for the outcome
- ‘Minimising strategy’ - motivated to get by doing as little as possible
- ‘Allocation strategy’ - save best effort for when is most beneficial to self
How is social loafing overcome?
By emphasising the importance of individual comparisons + increase accountability
How can team cohesion be developed (Carron, 1997, 2007)
Increase team distinctiveness / identity
Increase social cohesiveness (spending time together outside of sport)
Clarify team goals - realistic + specific
Improve team communication
What is the following statement describing?
“A person’s ability to exert deliberate mental effort on what is most important in any given situations”
Attention - Moran (2004)
What are the 4 key characteristics of concentration?
- Selective attention
- Maintaining awareness / attention
- Situational awareness
- Shifting attention
KEY CONCENTRATION CHARACTERISTIC 1
Describe selective attention…
Focus on relevant environmental cues + disregard irrelevant cues
- difficult for people with neurodivergent issues
Can be internal (within - thoughts, feelings) vs external (observable - sound etc)
KEY CONCENTRATION CHARACTERISTIC 2
Describe maintaining alertness
Maintaining it over a long period of time (F1)
- being able to switch it on / off and be alert to cues
- being able to regain concentration
KEY CONCENTRATION CHARACTERISTIC 3
Describe situational awareness
Being aware of what’s going on around you
- know what to focus on based on situational cues (learnt)
- keep awareness of what’s happening whilst executing a skill
KEY CONCENTRATION CHARACTERISTIC 4
Describe shifting attention
Shifting the scope and focus on attention - narrow/broad and internal/external
- like a camera lens - can zoom in + out
CONCENTRATION THEORY
What is the information processing approach?
The theoretical lens we use to understand attention + concentration in sport
- considers human thinking as a series of steps
It is a single channel fixed approach - attention was a ‘single’ channel + what could be done was limited
What are the 3 processes of attention? Describe them
Attentional selectivity - spotlight used to focus on what is most important
X - ‘fail’ to pinpoint and can get too narrow
Attentional capacity - attention is limited
- to mitigate this = controlled and automatic processing
Attentional alertness - connected to our levels of emotional arousal
X - too much emotion = narrow attention + may miss cues in other areas
Discribe the attentional control theory
- Top-Down (goal-directed) processing
- Bottom-Up (stimulus-driven) processing
It explains how anxiety affects cognitive performance - anxiety impairs goal-directed system so become more influenced by stimulus-driven system
What’s the difference between broad and narrow focus (width dimension)
Broad focus = athletes are aware of different stimuli at once
Narrow focus = athletes can exclude irrelevant information
What’s the difference between external and internal focus (direction dimension)
External = athlete focus in on stimuli external to them
Internal = concentration on internal factors (thoughts, feelings, body)
What are the different types of distractions in sport?
Internal - choking under pressure
External - visual, auditory
- external can easily turn into internal
Describe what ‘choking under pressure’ is
Typically characterised by a decrease in performance
- but poor performance does not necessarily equal choking
Outline the choking process proposed by Hill et al (2010)
Conditions lead to choking (important comp, critical players, being evaluated)
Causes physical changes (increased HR, breathing rate) and attentional changes (internal + narrow focus)
Leads to performance impairment (timing + coordination breakdown, fatigue, rushing)
How can attention be improved?
Self-talk
Mindfulness
Pre-performance routine
What is psych-skills training?
An approach to intervention in sport psychology
- part of the ‘doing’ of being an applied sport psych
What is the ultimate goal of PST - psych skills training?
Self regulation
- athletes function on their own - don’t need a constant direction from coach or psych
What are the 2 types of PST according to Hardy et al (1996)
Basic - relaxation, goal setting, imagery, self-talk
Advanced - controlling anxiety, self-confidence, motivation, attention
According to Brown + Fletcher, 2017, describe the efficacy of PST
- Psychological + physiological interventions = better performance
- Performance effects last roughly a month - need to be done regularly
- Interventions are better when coaches deliver
- Somewhat greater effects for men vs women
PST Intervention
What are the 3 types of anxiety in athletes?
Cognitive - worry + negative thoughts
Somatic - nervousness, tension, increased perspiration
Behavioural - tense facial expressions, changes in communication
PST Intervention
How do athletes cope with anxiety? [2]
Problem focused - efforts to alter/ manage the problem causing anxiety
- info gathering, pre-comp/ comp plans, self talk, time management
Emotion focused - regulate emotional responses to problem causing anxiety
- meditation, relaxation, wishful thinking, reappraisal, mental + behavioural withdrawal
Describe the Matching Hypothesis
Anxiety management technique should be matched with the anxiety problem
- Cognitive anxiety = mental relaxation
- Somatic anxiety = physical relaxation
Be aware of crossover effects - technique may assist in both types of anxiety
PST Intervention
What is progressive muscle relaxation?
Progressive = across different parts of body
The contrast between tension and relaxation (bring awareness to body)
- tense (5sec), 50% release (5sec), 100% release (10-15secs)
PST Intervention
How does breathing change levels of muscle tension?
Breathing in + holding increases muscle tension
Breathing out decreases muscle tension
What is diaphragmatic breathing?
Slowly inhale (5secs) imagining that the lungs are divided into 3 levels…
- fill lower level of lungs (push diaphragm down + force abdomen out)
- fill middle portion by expanding chest cavity + raising rib cage
- fill upper level of lungs by raising chest + shoulders
Exhale slowly (5 secs) - notice release of tension in shoulder + abdomen
When should you breathe - in sport?
Depends on the sport
- usually during a break in play (before tennis serve/ throw in)
- or to enhance skill execution (belly breathing in power lifting, releasing bow in archery)
PST Intervention
What is pressure training?
Recreating the pressure demands of competition in training
What are the steps of pressure training?
Demands of training
- task stressor - less warm up
- performer stressor - no music
- environment stressor - noise (crowd)
Consequences of training - not picked for team, lose sponsorship
Education - teach athletes how to cope + why do this
What is Stress inoculation training?
Exposing someone to what they are afraid of until they lose their fear
- a type of pressure training as a PST intervention
PST Intervention
What is self-talk?
Talking to ourselves / use of inner monologue
- can be a positive psychological skill to enhance concentration + increase confidence
- BUT can be a negative internal distractor to attention
What are the types of self-talk?
Positive - ‘I can do it’
Instructional - ‘keep eyes on ball’
Negative - ‘that was a bad shot’
- however negative isn’t always detrimental to performance - can be motivational for some
Describe organic vs strategic self-talk
Organic - spontaneous (unintended, come to mind naturally) and goal-directed
Strategic - pre-determined self-talk plans to trigger motivational functions
What does self-talk depend on?
Individual differences -preference, experiences, self-awareness
Culture - east-Asians have significantly more negative self-talk = better performance for them
Coaching - negative coaching practices (punishment) = more negative self-talk
Regarding self-talk, what is thought stopping?
A way to cope with negative thoughts by using a trigger word/ cue to stop thoughts
- can help to prevent spiralling of thoughts
- not a good LT coping mechanism
How can negative thoughts be turned into positive thoughts?
- keep phrases short + specific
- first person + present self
- positive phrases
- phrases with meaning
- speak kindly
- repeat phrases often
What is the best way to describe imagery?
Recreating experiences in the mind using memory and senses
Some people have an inability to picture things with their mind, what’s this called?
Aphantasia
How can imagery be used in sport?
Typically during pre-performance routine
- concentration, motivation, confidence, emotional responses, skills, strategy
Use of mental rehearsal - practice of task without physical movement
What does imagery rely on?
Our senses to build realistic images…
- sight
- touch
- hearing
- taste
- smell
- kinaesthetic sense (movement of bodies)
What are the kinds of imagery that you can picture?
Goal-Orientated = Imagine oneself winning
Skills = parallel bars successfully
Arousal = imagine a calm and quiet place to relax
Strategy = carrying out a strategy to win
What are the key theories of imagery?
Psychoneuromuscular
Symbolic learning
Bioinformational
Explain what the psychoneuromuscular theory of imagery proposes
Proposes imagery produces similar neuromuscular activity to actual movement
- when imagining a movement, you use similar neural pathways to when you do the movement - ideomotor principle
Explain the symbolic learning theory of imagery
Proposes that imagery creates a mental ‘blueprint’ of the required action
- enables rehearsal of cognitive aspects of skills
- mental practice is better for cognitive than motor tasks
Explain the bioinformational theory of imagery
An image is a functionally organised set of propositions stored in the brain
- stimulus, response and meaning
Linking these 3 prepositions through imagery enhances execution
What is the PETTLEP theory of imagery?
Describes imagery and physical practice to be functionally equivalent
- physical nature of task - what it is you want them to do
- environmental specifics - what’s happening around them
- task type - skill to be executed
- timing of movement - pre/during/post comp
- learning content of movement
- emotion of movement - meaning associated with it
- perspective of person - 1st, 3rd?
Why is goal setting important?
It’s central to performance - ensure goal directed behaviour
- used by all practitioners in sport - physio, coach, S&C
Describe Locke + Latham’s Goal Setting Theory (1990)
A goal is an ‘end state’ - something we are working towards
GST proposes that goal setting works because…
- it directs focus away from irrelevant tasks
- energises our pursuit of work
- influences persistence through difficultly
- discovery of task relevant strategies
Within the GST theory there are 5 important goal characteristics, what are these?
- Goal difficulty
- Goal specificity
- Goal proximity - ST, MT, LT goal
- Goal source - set by who?
- Goal types - learning/ task mastery or performance / ego
What are SMARTER goals?
Specific - who, what, where, when, why?
Measurable - how will you know it’s achieved?
Actioned - what are you going to do?
Resourced - what do you need?
Time based - how long?
Evaluate - how successful were you?
Reset - once achieved, start fresh!
As part of achievement goal theory there are 2 approaches, describe these
Task orientated - goals about improvement and mastery of skills
Ego orientated - I’m better the everyone else, comparisons
Explain what is meant by outcome, performance and process in relation to goal setting
Outcome - getting a professional contract, winning a match etc
Performance - increase pass completion %
Process - scan for best target for pass, relax elbows, breathe before shot
- setting performance goals, instead of outcome, reduces anxiety and increases performance
How does Northouse (2001) describe leadership?
The process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals who achieve a common goal
In 1981 Carron said there were 2 types of leader, what are these?
Prescribed leaders - appointed by an outside organising body
Emergent leaders - come from within the group itself either because of a skill / ability or they are nominated by group
- emergent leaders tend to have more of a significant impact as understand the group better
Outline the basic leadership model
Leadership - what you do as a leader, actions taken
This impacts athletes psychology - commitment, confidence, motivation etc
This then impacts their behaviours + performance - time spent doing extra training, effort invested, sacrifices
What are the 3 types of leadership - just name
Autocratic / task orientated
Democratic / person orientated
Laissez-faire
Outline what an autocratic leader is - their approaches, what happens if absent and when can they be good?
Dictates and inflexible approach to group
- task need to be completed as quickly as possible
- advice, ideas and comments not welcome
- cool and impersonal
- if leader is absent, groups members will stop / slow down
- aggressive towards each other if things go wrong
BUT can be good for high pressure situations
Outline what a democratic leader is - approach + when can they be good
Makes decisions after a consultation process
- encourage group involvement
- adopt a more informal, relaxed approach
- leader still makes final decision
- group members will continue to work even under leader absence
Can be effective in co-active sports
Describe a laissez-faire approach to leadership
No leadership - stands aside and allows group to be independent
- group members get on with things in own way
- no direction
- goals less likely to be achieved
- group members give up easily
What’s are the 3 theories / approaches to studying leadership?
Trait approach - leaders are born, not made in which successful leaders have certain personality traits
- BUT not definitive set of traits to characterise off
Behavioural approach - good leaders are made, anyone can be taught (social learning theory) via observations + reproducing behaviours which are reinforced
Interactional theory - considers other factors affecting leadership effectiveness - a mixture of individuals and situation
Explain the differences between person and task-orientated leaders
Person: focus on developing relationships with the people
- work hard to maintain communication, develop respect + trust
- more effective with experienced + highly skilled athletes
Task: concerned with meeting goals + objectives
- decide on priorities, assign members to tasks
- more effective with less experienced + less skilled performers
What did chelladurai propose leadership as?
A multidimensional model stating effective leadership is dynamic and based on a complex series of interactions between…
- leader
- group members
- situation
What are the 3 antecedents of the multidimensional model of leadership?
- Situational characteristics - environment, number in groups, time constraints, task difficulty
- Leader characteristics - skills, qualifications, personality
- Member characteristics - age, gender, personality, competence
What do the 3 antecedents of the multidimensional model of leadership affect?
3 leader behaviours
- Required behaviour (what’s required by task) - affected by situational characteristics
- Actual behaviour (what leader actually does) - affected by leader characteristics
- Preferred behaviour (what group wants) - affected by member and situational characteristics
As a result, what are the consequences of the multidimensional model of leadership?
Performance - high performance occurs when required and actual behaviour match
Satisfaction - high satisfaction occurs when preferred and actual behaviour match
An extension of the multidimensional model of leadership is transformational leadership, what is this?
It takes place when leaders go beyond their own self-interests and inspire, encourage and stimulate others to exceed minimally expected standards (Beauchamp, 2014)
Transformational leadership enhances motivation, morale and performance of members through many mechanisms, outline these
- by connecting followers identity to collective identity of organisation
- being a role model for followers that inspires them
- challenging followers to take greater ownership
- understanding strengths and weaknesses of followers
What type of research was carried out on transformational leadership + explain it?
Mediational analysis - attempting to add in another factor that explains the link between the 2 other variables
- For example, there is a direct relationship with sports performance but also has an indirect relationship through instrinsic motivation
- it has also been explain in terms of group cohesion (direct link) and an indirect link via communication
What types of issues are there regarding transformational leadership?
Reliance of correlational data
- cannot infer causality
Overemphasis of theory on leadership process at dyadic level
- explains leaders influence on individual members, not whole group
Insufficient specification of situational variable
- does not identify any situations where transformational leadership is detrimental
What is transactional leadership?
It involves a series of changes between the leader and follower
- leaders make use of rewards (and punishment) + reinforcement to foster compliance and encourage followers to meet previously agreed-upon standards
Describe the meta-cognitive model of vision, support and challenge
Model argues that great coaches inspire athletes by…
- creating an inspirational VISION of future
- providing the necessary SUPPORT to achieve the vision
- providing the CHALLENGE to achieve the vision
What is distributed leadership?
Not just one coach - wide range of individuals are brought into leadership
- its thought of as a product of interactions of leaders, followers and situations
HOWEVER there is little empirical evidence
What are some key reasons for why people exercise?
Weight control
Reduces risk of CV disease
Reduction in stress + depression
Enjoyment
Enhances self-esteem
Opportunities to socialise
What are some reasons for not exercising?
- Perceived lack of time
- Lack of energy
- Lack of motivation
- all controllable as opposed to environmental issue
Reasons attributed to omitting exercise
OLDER ADULTS
- more health related reasons
- selected more internal barriers (not the sporty type) than situational
- women selected more internal barriers
What is sedentary behaviour?
A total lack for exercise taking into account ‘sitting time’
- results in specific health outcomes = decreased fitness, decreased academic achievement, higher composition
What are some interventions to improve a sedentary lifestyle?
- goal setting
- positive reinforcement
- pre planning to break up chunks of sedentary portions
What solutions can you think of to prevent an adherence (sticking to it) problem when improving sedentary lifestyle?
Set several smaller goals that build towards main goal
- however changing behaviour is a complex process
Describe what the Health-Belief model explains and what its based on
Attempts to explain and predict health behaviours - focuses on attitudes and beliefs of individuals
Based on the following…
- individual desire to avoid illness or get well in case of current illness
- individual believes that an exact health act might avoid or treat illness
What are some key concepts surrounding the Health-Belief Model?
- Perceived susceptibility - ones opinion on chances of getting a condition
- Perceived severity - how serious condition is and consequences
- Perceived benefits - belief in efficacy of advised action (eat healthily e.g.) to reduce risk
- Perceived barriers - opinion of tangible and psychological cost of action
- Cues to action - strategies to activate readiness (seeing family member struggling)
- Self-efficacy - confidence to take action
What’s a key limitation of the Health-Belief model?
Originally developed to focus on diseases as opposed to exercise
Describe what the Theory of Planned Behaviour explains and the assumptions
Individual performance of a given behaviour is primarily determined by a persons intention to perform that behaviour (an extension of the theory of reasoned action)
Assumptions…
- human behaviour is under voluntary control of individual
- people think about consequences of actions then decide whether or not to do something
- so intention must be HIGHLY CORRELATED with behaviour
What is the extension to the theory of reasoned action adding?
Says that intentions cannot be the sole predictions of behaviour
- so in addition to notions of subjective norms and attitudes, planned behaviour theory stated that perceived behaviour control (peoples perceptions of ability to perform behaviour) will also control outcomes
What does the transtheoretical model argue?
Argues individuals progress through stages of change and this movement is cyclic rather than linear as many people do not succeed in efforts to maintain lifestyle changes
- interventions and info need to be tailored to match particular stage an individual is in at that time
List the stages of the cyclic transtheoretical model
- Pre-contemplation
- Contemplation
- Preparation stage
- Action stage
- Maintenance stage
- Termination stage
Stage 1 of transtheoretical model
Describe the pre-contemplation stage
Individual is not thinking about changing behaviour
- do not intend to start exercising in next 6 months
- demoralised about ability to change
- defensive due to social pressures
- uninformed of LT consequences
Stage 2 of transtheoretical model
Describe the contemplation stage
Seriously intend to start exercising in next 6 months (usually remain in this stage for 2 years)
- fleeting thought about starting but unlikely to act on it
Stage 3 of transtheoretical model
Describe the preparation stage
Exercising somewhat (less than 3 times per week)
- not regular enough for any major benefits
- have a plan of action to make changes
Stage 4 of transtheoretical model
Describe the action stage
Exercise regularly (3 or more times a week for 20mins or longer)
- been doing for fewer than 6 months
- last unstable stage - tends to correspond with highest risk of relapse
Stage 5 of transtheoretical model
Describe the maintenance stage
More than 6 months of regular exercise
- may experience boredom or loss of focus
- increase SE to overcome barriers
- people more intrinsically motivated than extrinsically
Stage 6 of transtheoretical model
Describe the termination stage
Stay in termination stage for 5 years - after which considered to have exited cycle of change and relapse does not occur
- resistant to relapse despite common barriers to exercise such as lack of time, no energy, low motivation + bad weather
List the 3 key strategies for enhancing exercise adherence
- Behaviour modification approach (prompts)
- Reinforcement approaches (feedback)
- Cognitive behavioural approaches (goal setting)
Describe the behaviour modification approach (prompts)
Use of prompts (a cue that initiates behaviour) to ensure individual carries on exercising
- increase cues for desired behaviour and decrease cues for competing behaviours
E.g. posters, slogans, placing exercising equipment in visible locations etc
Describe the reinforcement approaches (feedback)
Keeping a record of specified behaviour / outcome
- manual methods (electronic spreadsheets) or wearable technology (smart watch)
Has the potential to increase physical activity (no significant decrease in sedentary lifestyle but significant increase in daily step count etc)
Describe the cognitive behavioural approaches (goal setting)
Exercise goals most often reported - increasing cardio fitness, toning, losing weight)
- but goals with action plans for reaching goals are better - bringing fitness clothes to work, attending classes regularly, organising time around fitness
