Speech Language And Communication Flashcards
Three Guideposts of this lesson:
Communication
Components of Language
Components of Speech
What is communication?
Communication is the process of encoding, transmitting, and decoding signals in order to exchange information and ideas between the participants.
Encoding & Decoding:
putting meaning into and taking meaning from some type of symbol
Transmitting:
the method of communication used
In Ralphie’s case, the transmission was the radio message.
Information
the content which must be included
Communication can be oral-auditory (spoken) or visual-graphic (written, gestural, pictographic).
True
Language
a socially shared code or conventional system for representing concepts through the use of arbitrary symbols and rule-governed combinations of these symbols.
Language is all about rules.
True
Rules govern the meanings of words, how words are put together, and how words are used. However, rules only work if both participants share them.
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Receptive language
skill is what you need to listen to and comprehend someone’s words. Following directions is a classic version of this. Reading comprehension can also be a type of receptive language skill.
Expressive language
is the language that you use to communicate to others. When you assemble words to say “I want to go to the party.” vs. “Do you want to go to the party?” you use the rules to communicate a statement rather than a question.
Speech
the dynamic neuromuscular process of producing speech sounds for communication.
Speech is the surface manifestation of spoken language. It describes the sounds made by your muscles which are used to communicate.
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A spoken sound is a speech sound only if it is used to communicate, otherwise, it is just a sound.
True
Three components of Speech
Voice, Articulation, and Fluency
Voice
a resonated sound created by your vocal tract.
The Three Parts of Voice
Respiration, Phonation, and Resonance
Respiration
Inhalation and exhalation of air.
Speech begins with the air in your lungs - your respiration.
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Phonation:
The production of speech sounds through the vibration of the vocal folds in the larynx.
Next is the motor of your voice, or phonation. This is where your vocal folds vibrate as air passes through them, resulting in a tone.
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When you hum, this is what is happening. You can change your phonation by its pitch (or the frequencies used) and its loudness (or by the amplitude of those frequencies). Your fundamental pitch range is mostly determined by your size, but you can certainly make a range of sounds by using the structures in your larynx to change the tension of your vocal folds.
Phonation
Resonance
Modification of the vocal tone as it passes through the vocal tract.
Finally, when air is passed through your vocal folds, resulting in vibration, the shape of your throat, mouth and nose cavities determines the way in which that air continues to vibrate. This is called resonance.
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Specifically, with regard to speech, resonance is the modification of the vocal tone as it passes through the vocal tract. This is most important in describing the typical production of /m/, /n/ and “ng” sounds.
True
Articulation
the production of speech sounds through the physical movement of the jaw, lips, tongue, and velum to change the size and shape of the vocal tract.
Once the resonated air enters your oral cavity, you use the structures of your mouth - jaw, lips, tongue, palate - in order to shape sounds. This is what is referred to as “articulation.”
True
When, for instance, a child has difficulty saying “r” in words, this is not because of his difficulty understanding the difference between “run” and the number “one.” It is also not because of the difficulty of turning his voice motor on. It is only because it is difficult for him to curl and tense his tongue in such a way that the air is shaped to create the /r/ sound. This is articulation.
True
Fluency
the rate and flow of speech as it is produced.
Finally, the last component of speech is fluency.
True
Fluency refers to the rate and flow of speech - how fast and how smoothly it is created. It requires the coordination of muscles to work well. A discoordination of movement in any part of the speech mechanism can cause a disruption in fluency.
True
We can describe language in three parts.
Content, Form, and use
Content
the meaning of words
Form
how the rules change the shape or structure of language
Use
how the way in which we use words affects the communication success and intentions
Semantics
are the rules that govern the meaning or content of words and word combinations-word meaning.
Words have specific parts to their meaning. For example, think of the word “mother.” Particular features come to mind, don’t they? “Parent” or “female” maybe some of the first words that you think of. These are semantic features of the word “mother. “ On the other hand, there are certain things that a “mother” cannot be. For example, a mother cannot be male, this is considered a “semantic restriction.” A male parent is a “father.”
Semantics
The form, or structure, of language includes three components of language (Syntax, Morphology, and Phonology)
True
Syntax
the set of rules which govern the form or structure of word order.
Hungrily you cookies ate.” Even though all of the words are meaningful, the order of them limits their meaning. The order of the words matter.
Syntax
Morphology
the set of rules that govern the internal organization of words.
The structure of language can be broken down into the smallest grammatical units of meaning. These are called morphemes.
True
Think about the word “laughed. “ There are two concepts embedded in the word. The first is the concept of an action someone uses when happy (“laugh”). The second concept is that something already happened, it is past. This is represented by the –ed ending.
Morphemes
two types of morphemes:
Free morphemes and bound morphemes
Free Morphemes
Independent grammatical units that can stand alone and still have meaning
Bound Morphemes
Grammatical tags or markers that cannot function independently, but change or add meaning when attached to a free morpheme. The –ed of past tense and the possessive -‘s are just two examples of bound morphemes.
Phonology
the set of rules that govern the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.
Phonology is the study of how sounds are put together to create meaning in words.
True
For instance, if you said the word “seek” you could change the manner of how you say /s/ by stopping the airflow. The result would change the meaning “seek” to a type of wood, “teak.” If you also changed the place of articulation to the lips instead of the tongue, you would end up with a different word, “peek.”
However, if you changed the voicing on the /s/ you would end up with “Zeke” the name of a person. Finally, if you changed the sequence of the /s/ /i/ and /k/ you create “eeks” or “ski.” In this way, manipulating phonemes by changing their syllable structure or sequence follows the rules of phonology. If you didn’t follow the rules (like putting five consonants in a row) you would have nonsense.
Phonology
Phonemes
Are the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Include all vowels and consonant sounds. A syllable is a sequence of phonemes surrounding one vowel unit.
Word
Phonemes
Syllables
ladder
/l/ /a/ /d/ /ɚ/
(lad) (der)
2 syllables each has one vowel
baby
/b/ /e/ /b/ /i/
(ba) (by)
2 syllables each has one vowel
car
/k/ /a/ /ɚ/
(car)
1 syllable one vowel
Phonemes
Articulation of phonemes are determined by:
Place, voice, and manner
Place
Location of air constriction
Voice
Presence/absence of phonation
Manner
timing and transition of airflow
Pragmatics
the rules related to language use within the communicative context
Often one of the hardest concepts to comprehend is the component of language called pragmatics. Pragmatics refers to the rules of how we use language. It can refer to how appropriately the language choice is for the context
True
Have you ever known someone who stood too close when they talked or didn’t make eye contact? It’s your sense of rules for language use which made you notice this.
Pragramatics
Pragmatics also refers to how we organize information.
True
If I started to tell a story, but I didn’t introduce the topic or characters but started with “Then he said it was broken.” You would be very confused. The organization of information according to different contexts such as story-telling, conversation or other forms of discourse is determined by the rules of pragmatics.
Pragmatics
Terms Associated with Pragmatics
Presupposition, Communicative Competence, Paralinguistic Cues, Suprasegmental Devices, and Nonverbal/Nonlinguistic Cues
Presupposition
assumption of listener knowledge
Communicative Competence
the degree of success in communicating an intended message
Paralinguistic Cues
vocal and non-vocal information imposed on a linguistic code to signal attitude and emotions or to clarify or provide additional meaning.
Suprasegmental Devices
intonation, stress, rate of speech change or pausing to change the meaning or form of a sentence.
Nonverbal/Nonlinguistic Cues
behaviors that are communicated without the production of words.
Presupposition
When communicating, a speaker makes an assumption about what the listener knows. An example of presupposition is when you are talking with a very good friend, and instead of saying “My husband…” you may be able to start with “Gary…” because you know that your friend knows who “Gary” is, and you don’t have to re-introduce the character. If you were talking to a complete stranger and started with “Gary…” you may not demonstrate good communicative competence, because the listener would not have understood yet who this “Gary” person was, and you didn’t take the time to explain it.
More Factors in Communicative Competence
Communicative competence is also supported by changes in intonation, stress, speech and pausing in speech to either add or change the meaning of what is said. Think about the phrase “You’re wearing that dress.” You might emphasize “That” to signal a reference to a choice of dress options. You might instead emphasize “You’re” as in “YOU’RE wearing that dress?” This changes the entire meaning, and the speaker is surprised that someone else is wearing the dress she wanted to wear. Or, you might emphasize “wearing” to talk about how attractive a person is.
Or, you might walk into a room, another person looks at you, and they walk out of the room. Here nothing was spoken in words, but much was communicated with nonverbal cues. The fact that you can understand these clues which stand in the stead of, or appear alongside, spoken words suggests that Nonlinguistic Cues, Paralinguistic Cues, and Suprasegmental Devices are also regulated by the rules of pragmatics.
Metalinguistics
the ability to talk about language, analyze it, think about it, judge it, and see it as an entity separate from the content.
Metalinguistic skill is the ability to view language as a set of concepts separate from itself.
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Observing Metalingistics in Children
Age
Metalinguistic Abilities
1 1/2 – 2 Years
Repairs spontaneously
Practices sounds, words & sentences
Adjusts for different listeners
3-4 Years
Checks the result of what was said
Corrects others
Practices speech styles of different results
School Age
Corrects word and wording in sentences judged to be incorrect
Identifies specific linguistic units sounds, syllables, words, sentences
Provides word definitions
Construct puns on riddles in order to create humor
nervous system
the network of neurons, which transmit nerve impulses between parts of the body.
The nervous system is divided into two parts:
Central Nervous system, and peripheral nervous system
Central Nervous System
includes your brain and spinal cord, is the control center for your voluntary and involuntary responses to the world around you.
Peripheral Nervous System
includes the neurons traveling from your brain and spinal cord. They are responsible for communicating information about taste, touch, sight, smell, and sound to your central nervous control center.
the central nervous system ensures that you have appropriate sensory and motor responses to these stimuli which are well integrated and regulated.
True
Neurons
are the basic working unit of the brain, a specialized cell designed to transmit information to other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells.
The neuron is the cell that charges up and transmits chemical energy to other cells.
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It contains one cell body (which has a nucleus), one axon, and several dendrites. The cell body integrates incoming signals and generates the outgoing signal to the axon. An axon passes electrical signals to dendrites of another cell or to an effector cell. The dendrites collect electrical signals. At the space between neurons, called the synaptic cleft, chemicals are exchanged to transmit information
True
Synapse
The space that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron.
Brain
an organ of soft nervous tissue contained in the skull which coordinates sensation and intellectual and nervous activity.
the brain is separated into two hemispheres, the left and the right. While not a hard and fast rule because of brain plasticity, it may help you to know that the language centers of the brain are typically focused in the left hemisphere, while the right brain often has more to do with the perception of spatial and nonverbal concepts.
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It is important to note that, in general, the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa. So, if a person has damage to the left hemisphere, you would likely see motor differences on the right side of the body.
True
The brain can also be separated vertically, into the cerebrum and the cerebellum. In this image of the left hemisphere (the left side of the image faces front), the lobes on top with the bigger bumps (or gyri) is called the cerebrum. The smaller portion tucked under the bottom in the back is the cerebellum. It takes all of the intentions of the cerebrum and ensures that the movements in response are coordinated.
True
Cerebrum
upper part of the brain responsible for controlling voluntary movement and coordinating mental processes; includes the basal ganglia.
Cerebellum
lower part of the brain which coordinates voluntary movements, balance, and posture.
Parts of the Cerebrum
occipital cortex, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, and frontal lobe
occipital cortex
is the major center for vision. You may have noticed that if you hit the back of your head, you might blackout. This is directly due to the location of the occipital lobe.
temporal lobe,
conveniently located around your ear, is responsible for perceiving, recognizing and synthesizing auditory input.
parietal lobe,
organized topically by its innervation to other parts of the body is responsible for interpreting sensation, whereas, just on the other side of the central sulcus,
frontal lobe
responsible for not only higher-level thinking but also motor planning and initiation of movements.
Primary Auditory Cortex:
perceives auditory input
Auditory Association Area:
recognizes & processes auditory input like music, speech, and other sounds
Wernicke’s Area:
monitors verbal output in order to make adjustments
Broca’s Area
plans & programs motor movements for speech
Primary Motor Cortex:
initiates motor movement
Primary Somatosensory Cortex:
gives sensory input back to the motor cortex
After an incoming auditory signal, the primary auditory cortex identifies that a sound has been made, this information is passed to the auditory association area where the sound is recognized and categorized.
True
Once speech information is recognized as speech, the patterns of sounds in words are matched to concepts in Wernicke’s area. So, when you hear a set of sounds in a particular sequence (such as “d—o—g” ) Wernicke’s area maps that sound onto the image and other semantic features of the word “dog.“
True
First, Broca’s area is responsible for programming those motor movements of the articulators. This plan is then sent to the primary motor cortex where the movement is initiated. However, in order for the movements to be appropriate, the sensory information from the primary somatosensory cortex must be consulted.
True
two other structures of the brain essential for communication.
Corpus Callosum and Arcuate Fasciculus
Corpus Callosum
commissural fiber connecting left and right hemispheres
Arcuate Fasciculus
association fiber connecting Broca’s & Wernicke’s Areas
For patients with excess seizure activity, the corpus callosum might be cut in order to save the function of one side of the brain. If the arcuate fasciculus was involved in damage, the client may have greater difficulty in changing intention into the spoken word.
True
Thalamus
a small, highly-innervated internal structure of the brain responsible for relaying motor and sensory signals to the cerebral cortex.
Thalamus, which contains the basal ganglia, is a coordinating center for all of the cerebrum.
True
thalamus and basal ganglia also join the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala in emotional regulation and memories.
True
brain stem
the lower part of the brain the meets the spinal cord.
Parts of the Brain Stem
Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla Oblongata
Midbrain
auditory and visual processing, eye movement.
Pons
controls breathing, senses hearing, taste, and proprioception, and communicates with parts of the brain.
Medulla Oblongata
controls heart rate, breathing, blood vessel dilation, digestion, sneezing, swallowing and vomiting. Point of insertion for cranial nerves.
spinal cord
the cylindrical bundle of nerve fibers and associated tissue that is enclosed in the spine and connects nearly all parts of the body to the brain. It is responsible for connecting the rest of the brain to the peripheral nervous system.
The spinal cord is likely the part of the nervous system which you’ve thought most about.
True
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
connects the central nervous system to the organs, limbs, and skin.
The peripheral nervous system, as we introduced is the nervous system that lies outside of the brain and spinal cord. It is that part of the system which bridges the gap between the brain and spinal cord, and the rest of the body which needs their information.
True
The somatic nervous system
is the part of the PNS responsible for voluntary body movements using skeletal muscles. It consists of afferent (sensory) nerves and efferent (motor) nerves. This includes voluntary respiration and articulation.
autonomic nervous system
regulates those involuntary bodily functions such as the heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This includes regulation of the “fight or flight” response.
sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons innervate the same tissue, but cause different responses.
True
Sympathetic
more activation
Parasympathetic
less activation
Cranial Nerves
are the sensation & motor movement of the muscles and tissues of the cranium.
Cranial Nerves are part of the PNS. These nerves, attached at the medulla, communicate how the muscles of the mouth and face should move, as well as senses where these muscles are in space with relationship to other mouthparts. They have both sensory and motor components.
True
