South Africa- Theme 1

Question 1

Segregation before 1948

Answer 1

Limited rights to own land or travel and live freely.
Lack of job security and unskilled jobs at lower wages
1923- the government passed the Natives (Urban Areas) Act, meaning employed African were restricted to separate townships.
Migrant labour- rural areas at full capacity

Question 2

African response

Answer 2

South African Native National Congress formed in 1912. Renamed the ANC in 1923. They protested against discrimination and to appeal for equal treatment before the law.
In 1913, African women were required to carry passes, but high protests caused the authorities to back down. Women didn’t have to carry passes for 40 years.

Question 3

Rise of Afrikanerdom

Answer 3

Afrikaners began to regain political identity. They turned away from Jan Smuts.
Hertzog formed the National Party in 1914. The NP coalition in 1924.
The Broederbond was created in 1918, mainly young professionals.
Hertzog and Smuts created a United Party in 1924. There was great opposition to this.

Question 4

How did white rule before 1948 affect black South Africans? Urbanisation and industrialisation

Answer 4

Gold was discovered in the Rand-Transvaal in 1886, leading to Johannesburg to grow to 100,000 people in 1900. It reached 1 million people in 1948. There were more Africans than whites.

Question 5

How did white rule before 1948 affect black South Africans? Rural society

Answer 5

Land ownership was divided by race and class.
Whites owned 80% of land, mainly farms and private property.
Whites employed blacks as labourers and tenants.
Christianity was dominant.
In black reserves, missionaries/churches ran black schools.
African men were migrant workers in cities.
1913 Natives Land Act. 1936 Native Trust and Land Act

Question 6

How did white rule before 1948 affect black South Africans? Influence of Britain

Answer 6

In 1948, South African was a self-governing part of the British Empire. British descent made up 40% of the population. The main language was English and British sports were popular. During WW2 SA was allies with Britain.

Question 7

How did white rule before 1948 affect black South Africans? Impact of WW2

Answer 7

Smuts declared support for Britain.
Afrikaners wanted to remain neutral in the war.
300,000 South Africa fought in the war, but no blacks were allowed to carry weapons.
Factories expanded, with more machines and black workers. Racial lines caused tensions.
Labour strikes and industrial action, e.g. 1946 mineworkers strikes by 73,000 people.
More blacks in cities than whites.
Restrictions for blacks were relaxed.
South African Indian Congress (SAIC) carried out mass resistance.
Declaration of the United Nations in 1942- ‘people’s of the world’, should have equal rights and liberty.

Question 8

Why did the National Party win the 1948 election? Appeal to white voters

Answer 8

Whites feared a rapid influx of Africans. The NP outlines they would combat this fear.
The NP promised to implement apartheid. The Sauer Report- segregation was the only way forward. ‘The reserves were where Africans belonged’. ‘The number of Africans in cities must be controlled’. ‘Black locations must be kept clearly separate from white towns’.
Afrikaner nationalism had become a strong force in SA politics. The Broederbond.
Whites changed their support from the United Party to the National Party.
Appeal to whites- ‘integration and national suicide’, or ‘apartheid and the protection of the pure white race’.

Question 9

Why did the National Party win the 1948 election? Other reasons

Answer 9

Many felt that Jan Smuts was not doing enough to address their fears. He failed to deal with post-war problems, such as the labour shortage, housing shortage.
Blacks couldn’t vote, and they were the majority.
The NP didn’t win the most votes, but under the constituency system, they gained the most MPs, so formed a majority under D.F Malan.

Question 10

Strengthening of the National Party

Answer 10

In 1949, 6 members of parliament were added for whites in Namibia, where the Nationalists had support.
Removed coloured vote with the 1951 Separate Representation of Voters Act.
Appointed Afrikaner judges in court.
Afrikaners took positions in military, police and bureaucracy.

Question 11

Hendrik Verwoerd

Answer 11

Minister of Native Affaris, 1950-59. This meant he controlled the passing of legislation and laws.
Prime Minister from 1958-1966, National Party.
He strongly believed in a policy of apartheid.

Question 12

Apartheid laws

Answer 12

1949, Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act
1950, Suppression of Communism Act
1950, Group Areas Act
1951, Bantu Authorities Act
1952, Native Abolition of Passes Act
1952, Urban Areas Act
1953, Bantu Education Act
1959, Extension of University Education Act

Question 13

How did the laws work in practice? Sophiatown

Answer 13

it was the epicentre of politics, jazz and blues.
Blacks had freehold ownership of their properties.
Plans for forced evictions, under the 1954 Natives Resettlement Act, which gave the state powers to forcibly remove residents and relocate them to Meadowlands in 1955.
The ANC reacted with an 18 month campaign- ‘We won’t move’.
65,000 people were removed over 6 years.
New homes had no toilets, electricity or water.
Sophiatown became Triomf, a white suburban area.

Question 14

How did the laws work in practice? Durban

Answer 14

It housed around 450,000 Indians, Africans and Whites. Indians owned private property in Cato Manor and the city centre.
In 1949, Africans attacked Indians who they felt were exploiting them. 142 killed and 1,000 injured.
In 1950s, the Group Areas Act was imposed, shack settlements were removed. 41,000 Indians were moved to an ‘Indian zones’, to the south of the city, where private property ownership was permitted.
Africans were sent to far-flung townships.

Question 15

How did the laws work in practice? District 6

Answer 15

Multi-racial, mainly coloured residential and business area, near Cape Town city centre.
From 1966, 60,000 people were forcibly removed and resettled to distant cape flats. Buildings were bulldozed.

Question 16

The nature of apartheid rule- Pass laws

Answer 16

Natives Abolition of Passes Act in 1952: Reference books required at all times. Established identity and rights in urban areas. Extended to women in 1956.
However, these failed to keep Africans out of cities. The African urban population grew from 1.8m in 1946, to 3.5m in 1960.

Question 17

The nature of apartheid rule- Control of space

Answer 17

Petty apartheid- reservation of benches, buses and beaches.
1953 Reservation of Separate Amenities Act made it legal to provide separate facilities for blacks, that were not of an equal quality in practice.
Influx control- Reducing African migration to cities. The NP wanted cities free of cheap black labour, African crime and protests.

Question 18

How was the Education Act, (1953) significant?- Aims of the education acts

Answer 18

Before 1948, education was segregated, funded by the government and run by churches.
Aimed to provide blacks with minimal skills, only to serve the white population. To limit their advancement
Only 24% of blacks were literate in 1951.

Question 19

How was the Education Act, (1953) significant?- The Bantu Education Act, 1953

Answer 19

It extended African education and segregated the content of education. Schools were put directly under state control.
Fear of street gangs was a driving force behind this expansion.
It did increase educational opportunities. The NP realised African workers needed to be more skilled to meet demand.
Verwoerd said education should prepare them for only limited roles and opportunities after school.

Question 20

How was the Education Act, (1953) significant?- Extension of University Act, 1959

Answer 20

Fort Hare became under government control.
It planned for the full segregation by race of the largely white English language universities and set out plans for new universities for African ethnic groups and other minorities.

Question 21

How was the Education Act, (1953) significant?- Higher education

Answer 21

Before the 1950s, only wealthy blacks could go to uni, such as Fort Hare, Turfloop, where they received equal training as whites.
Fort Hare became a key centre for black student opposition to apartheid.

Question 22

How did apartheid change under Verwoerd? -The Tomlinson Report

Answer 22

In 1955, Tomlinson presented results of his inquiry into how to make ‘idealist apartheid’ work.
Recommendations: Black reserves should be increased in size and become black ‘homelands’. SA government should spend £100m to improve farming and establish industries in homelands, so they can become independent and excluded from white SA.
Verwoerd rejected these propositions, as he thought they should be self-governed and not supported by white businesses.

Question 23

How did apartheid change under Verwoerd?- Bantustans

Answer 23

Bantustans were areas in which blacks would become self-governing and independent.
Verwoerd didn’t allow investment in farming in Bantustans. He didn’t allow industry to develop, so many were migrant workers in cities.
1959 Bantu Self-Government Act: 8 self-governing homelands (increased to 10), each for an ethnic group. Black rulers were chosen by chiefs, whose choice had to be approved by the SA government.
By 1989, 4 homelands were independent, but no countries recognised them as independent states.

Question 24

How did apartheid change under Verwoerd?-‘Betterment’ and ‘Rehabilitation’

Answer 24

Divided pastures to smaller paddocks and rotated animal grazing, to reduce land degradation.
Moved rural families into compact villages, over 1m people were forced to move in the 1950s and 60s.
It was cheaper than the Tomlinson report, but very disruptive.

Question 25

Political opposition in 1948

Answer 25

There was no single black opposition group uniting the different movements.
The ANC was established in 1912. Their motive to take action was the creation of the Union of South Africa in 1910.
Strikes, boycotts, street protests, mass rallies, petitions.
Bus boycotts in 1944-45.
In 1946, miners went on strike. The Communist Party was a key figure.

Question 26

The Treason Trial

Answer 26

In 1956, 156 members of the Congress Alliance (ANC, SAIC) were arrested and accused of high treason. They were subject to a trial lasting 5 years.
The ANC leaders were tied up in legal proceedings for 5 years, limiting their action.
Although, it did give publicity to the accused.
They were all acquitted in 1961.

Question 27

The ANC and Youth League

Answer 27

In the 1940, in the ANC there was a gap between cautious leadership and a new generation of activists.
The ANC Youth League was funded in 1944, with more radical action and mass political action. First led by Anton Lembede. Members included Manela, Sisulu, Tambo. Africanist ideology, self-determination.
Launched a programme of action in 1949, using a confrontational approach. Use of boycotts, work stoppages and mass action. African consciousness, nationalism and a united African people.
In 1952, Albert Luthuli was president/leader.
The ANC adopted the programme of action in December 1949. A militant liberation movement.

Question 28

ANC links with other organisations

Answer 28

In the 1940s, the Communist Party accepted they would find mass support, so they worked with African Nationalists- ANC. The CP was made up of black and white intellectuals.
The NP banned the CP in 1950- Suppression of Communism Act.
The SAIC was not accepted into the ANC.
White liberals were critical of apartheid. They formed the Liberal Party in 1953. They didn’t work with the ANC or CP.

Question 29

The Defiance Campaign, 1952

Answer 29

It used non-violent civil disobedience.
They campaigned for the defiance of unjust laws, such as the pass laws, curfews and segregated public facilities.
Leaders were Mandela, Lembede, Sisulu, Tambo.
Main areas were Johannesburg, Cape Town, Durban and Port Elizabeth.
Groups of volunteers tried to break racially based restrictions. They went to jail for ‘defying unjust laws’.

Question 30

The Defiance Campaign, 1952- Case Study: East London

Answer 30

Population of 35,000 people. High poverty and infant mortality levels.
The Defiance Campaign began here in 1952, with a rally of 1,500 people. ANC activists wore khaki uniforms. Local ANC was led by Alcot Gwentshe and C J Fazzie. Gwentshe wanted to overthrow white domination, reject white rule and develop democracy and independence.
In July 1952, the first full month of open defiance, regular meetings were held.
Protesters were willingly arrested, in the hope that sheer numbers would overload courts and prisons. Many youths joined.
In October 1952, it split between the moderate Gwensthe and radical Fazzie.
Riots in Port Elizabeth led to the government banning all public gatherings for 1 month.
9th November 1952, 2 whites killed, 7 blacks killed and 18 injured. The ANC called off the Defiance Campaign nationally.

Question 31

To what extent was the Defiance Campaign, 1952, a failure?- Success

Answer 31

Non-violence: It started off y using non-violence. Government shouldn’t be able to criticise them if they used non-violence. Better appearance and portrayal in the media, leading to increased support.
Large scale: Increased ANC membership, from 7,000 to over 100,000. Mass rallies, e.g. 1,500 people in East London. Attention from the government. Cape Town, Johannesburg, Durban, East London.
SACP: Whites and blacks working together. Tambo and Sisulu spoke to 200 white supporters of the campaign, in 1952 in Johannesburg. The campaign stimulated it growth.
1952 Abolition of Passes Act: Pass books were no longer necessary. Instead, reference books had to be carried.

Question 32

To what extent was the Defiance Campaign, 1952, a failure?- Failure

Answer 32

No laws changed: It didn’t stop the imposed laws of apartheid. Laws were still heavily enforced.
No attitudes changed: Whites attitudes didn’t change, so life for blacks was very much the same as before.
Early end: Due to extreme violence, the ANC called off the campaign nationally in November 1952.
Violence: East London- 7 blacks killed, 2 whites killed and 18 injured. This led to the banning of public gatherings for 1 month. The campaign split between the moderate Gwentshe and radical Fazzie.

Question 33

The impact of the Defiance campaign on rural areas- Rural resistance: Sekhukhuneland

Answer 33

In 1957-58, people here tried to stave off government intervention in their political and social lives.
In the 1950s, the Department of Native Affairs had planned to make S.land a homeland, causing a split in the area.
Some joined the ANC, while other migrant workers formed their own organisations to assist with transport, finding jobs, financing funerals. They were opposed to Bantustans.
The arrest and deportation of the deposed paramount chief, who was trying to protect the migrant workers and rural families, was seen as a particular provocation.
Large numbers of police were sent in, arresting hundreds.
In 1957, the government, determined to impose the Bantu Authorities Act, deposed the paramount chief and installed men who would cooperate. By May 1958, 9 of those who were seen as government collaborators had been beaten or stabbed to death and houses burnt.

Question 34

The impact of the Defiance campaign on rural areas- Rural resistance: Alexandra Bus boycotts, 1957

Answer 34

In 1957, people boycotted buses, despite this meant they had a 20 mile walk to and from work.
The government paid bus companies to keep fares down, but some increased fares.
Blacks were dependent on buses to get to and from work.
Police harassed them and accused the ANC of intimidating police.
As a result, bus fares were lowered.

Question 35

Role of women- Anti-pass law demonstrations

Answer 35

On 9th August 1956, 20,000 women staged a march on the Union buildings. They had signed petitions.
Verwoerd refused to meet a multi-racial group.
The 9th August was declared Women’s day.

Question 36

Role of women- Beer hall protest, Durban Riots, 1959

Answer 36

Black women could make an independent living by brewing beer and selling it in a shebeen. This was banned by the government.
Police raided shebeens and women were heavily fined.
In Cato Manor, Durban in 1959, women attacked and burnt down 2 official beer halls. The police violently attacked them the next day.

Question 37

The role of women

Answer 37

The Federation of South African Women (FSAW) was founded in 1954. 146 delegates, representing 230,000 women, attended the founding conference. The ‘women’s charter’.
Only admitted as members of the ANC in 1943.
Women’s League was founded in 1948,incorporating existing women’s organisation into the ANC.
In 1955, pass laws were extended to cover women, as many were moving from rural areas to cities.

Question 38

The Freedom Charter, 1955

Answer 38

In 1955, the Congress Alliance wrote a charter using their core political beliefs. This became known as the Congress of the People Campaign.
It called for a fully democratic SA, with a fairer distribution of land and wealth.
The Freedom Charter was revealed a ta rally in Kliptown, Soweto on 26th June 1955.
Blacks and whites came together to bring change by equality.
The ANC and all groups it worked with attended.
Many ANC leaders were banned or under arrest at the time.
Nearly 3,000 delegates were at the meeting. The crows was surrounded by police.
‘Votes for all’ ‘South Africa belongs to all who live in it’.

Question 39

How did the government deal with resistance?- Mass arrests and the Treason Trial

Answer 39

After the Defiance Campaign, in December 1956, the government arrested 156 people connected with the Freedom Charter. They were accused of high treason, supporting communism and belonging to a Communist organisation.
The trial brought a large amount of publicity and the arrested used it as a platform for their views.
It lasted 5 years.
The government was unable to proves any of the charges and so all were acquitted in 1961.

Question 40

How did the government deal with resistance?- Banning orders

Answer 40

Freedom was restricted.
The government began to introduces banning orders to suppress opposition to apartheid.
No proof or trial was needed to ban an individual/ group.
The Suppression of Communism Act, 1950: The SACP was banned and its members began to work inside other organisations e.g. ANC. The act was also used to deal with anyone who opposed the regime.
Nelson Mandela was banned for most of the 1950s, along with other ANC leaders.