South Africa 1960-68 Flashcards
Why did African opposition to Apartheid increase in 1960
The rise of the PAC created new communities who wanted rid of Apartheid
What did the PAC do to directly oppose the ANC in 1960
They knew the ANC were holding a campaign on the 31st March 1960, but wanted to do one, so they set up their own for the 21st March 1960, angering Mandela and the ANC
Context of Sharpeville including:
- Distance from a major city
- Date of foundation
- How Sharpeville was planned out
- 3 reasons why Sharpeville was politicised
A suburb of Vereeniging, about 70km South of Johannesburg. It was set up in 1942, as a model township with more amenities than most, like a clinic and a library. However, the mass immigration of people forced out of demolished townships like Sophiatown, immigrants from Lesotho and the foundation of a PAC branch politically mobilised the community
What happened on the 20th March 1960
In the night, youths moved onto the streets and stabbed a policeman, before policemen opened fire and killed 2 protesters, then had a meeting at a football stadium which the police broke up
What happened on the 21st March 1961
- 5,000 people, some PAC members, some regular activists, some curious citizens, assembled at Sharpeville Police Station in the morning, and the crowd was relaxed and friendly
- At 1pm, Police reinforcements arrived, with 200 White Policemen with rifles, and 200 Black Policemen with clubs. They were led by the regional chief of police, Lieutenant Colonel Pienaar.
- When one organiser refused to tell the crowd to disperse, he was arrested, making the crowd angrier
- The Police panicked, and one low ranking policemen shouted ‘fire!’ causing panic and the Police opened fire on the crowd, shooting many in the back as they ran
Why did the Police panic at Sharpeville? (3 reasons)
- They were severely outnumbered
- Most policemen there were inexperienced and got overwhelmed by fear
- There was an attack on police at Cato Manor the week before which killed 9 policemen, so police may have feared a repeat
How many were killed and injured in the Sharpeville Massacre
69 killed, 186 wounded
3 things the Police did to cover up their huge mistake in Sharpeville
- Kicked and killed wounded witnesses
- Planted stones to look like they were being attacked
- Got interviewed and blamed the protestors
Why was Sharpeville so much more disturbing to international audiences compared to other events
Photographs of the event quickly circulated in national and international press
How did the UN react to Sharpeville
Passed a regulation denouncing and calling for an end to Apartheid
What did the ANC do following the Sharpeville Massacre
Kept to their plan and organised a mass pass burning on the 28th March 1960, but declared a day of mourning
What two events happened on the 30th March 1960
- A State of National Emergency was declared by Verwoerd
- 30,000 Africans marched peacefully Cape Town
What did the State of Emergency mean
- Public meetings (protests) were banned
- The Police could arrest anyone without fear of consequence
- The Government could pass whatever laws they wanted
Name 3 people who were arrested in the State of Emergency
Nelson Mandela, Joe Slovo, Albert Luthuli
What law banned the ANC and PAC and what day was it passed
8th April 1960, the Unlawful Organisations Act 1960 was passed, meaning the NP could ban whoever they wanted
What happened on the 9th April 1960, a day after the Unlawful Organisations Act 1960
Verwoerd was shot (but survived)
Why was the question of forming a Republic in SA so controversial
Many more moderate NP members (pragmatists) hated Verwoerd’s aggressive, hardline approach and his arrogance, so they wanted to remain a British colony
How did Verwoerd bolster support for becoming a Republic
Made P.J. Meyer, a Transvaal Radical, head of the Broederbond, increasing pro-Republic opinions amongst the Afrikaner elites. Meyer also became head of the South African Broadcasting Corporation, where the Nationalists took control of media
What aspect of media was not introduced by Meyer in SA during until 1976 and why
TV - As the NP didn’t think they could control what went on TV well enough which could cause anti-NP propaganda to be nationally broadcast
What month and year did Harold MacMillan make his ‘winds of change’ speech
February 1960
What was said in the Winds of Change Speech (3)
- Confirmed the UK’s intent to decolonise SA
- Praised SA for its achievements and beauty
- Indirectly called out Apartheid
Why did the UK choose to decolonise SA
- Pressure from the USA
- Insurgencies in Kenya and Malaysia as a result of defending the empire
- High costs for the UK
- Choosing decolonisation could lead to friendly relations and therefore trade
How did Verwoerd react to the Winds of Change Speech
- Emphasised the White determination to stay in power
- Cemented in his mind the idea of ‘decolonising’ SA itself using Bantustans
When was the vote for an independent Republic (MM/YYYY)
October 1960
What was the outcome of the vote for SA independence
52% yes, 48% no
What date did SA become fully independent
31st May 1961
Describe the events that led up to SA leaving the Commonwealth
- Verwoerd applied to remain as a republic in the Commonwealth
- Meeting was held to discuss it in March 1961
- UK, Australia, NZ FOR SA
- Most of Africa and Asia AGAINST SA
- When asked about embassies of newly independent African/Asian countries in Pretoria, Verwoerd said he couldn’t have the city ‘crowded’ with embassies
- This undiplomatic behaviour angered literally everyone, and negotiators advised that SA couldn’t stay in the Commonwealth
- Verwoerd withdrew and SA became fully independent of Britain and the Commonwealth, fully achieving the Afrikaner national dream
What were UK relations with SA like after SA left the commonwealth
- Placed some pressure on them, as they still owned Botswana, Lesotho and eSwatini
- The UK and London especially became the centre of the international Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM)
- They wanted good relations still though for trade as SA exports to the UK were really important for the UK
- They needed SA as a partner against Communism
What year was the AAM founded, and where
London, 1960
When did the ANC first call for UN boycotts of SA (YYYY)
1959
What law did the UN pass against SA in 1962
Optional ban on imports and exports to SA (mostly not followed by most Western Trade Partners)
What law did the UN pass against SA in 1963 and did the UK follow this
Optional arms embargo against SA, followed by the UK in 1964
What kind of activism did the ANC + PAC use before the 1960s
Non-violent
Why did the ANC and PAC have to rethink their political strategy from 1960 onwards
Their non-violence wasn’t working as it had still led to the parties being made illegal and there were arrest warrants for many of its open members making taking a passive approach useless
When did the State of Emergency after Sharpeville end and why?
August 1960 when the government thought that they had stopped the momentum of mass protest
According to _______ and ______, the ANC first discussed the possibility of using force and violence in the year ____
According to Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu, the ANC first discussed the possibility of using force and violence in the year 1952
Name 3 examples of successful armed revolutions before the 1960s and why was this significant to the opinions of the ANC and PAC
Chinese Revolution
Cuban Revolution
Algerian Armed Struggle Against France
These were important as it created belief that armed struggle could succeed at topppling government
Why didn’t the ANC use violence before 1961
A major part of their members’ defence in the Treason Trial was their commitment to nonviolence and if this changed many main leaders would be put behind bars
When did the ANC officially agree on armed struggle (MM/YYYY)
June 1961
Name a person and a group against this decision
Luthuli and the South African Indian Congress
Name one significant person who left SA to help in the armed struggle, safe from government power
Oliver Tambo
What was the military wing affiliated with the ANC and which other party did the organisation have links to
MK, affiliated with the CP as well as the ANC
What was decided in the MK concerning where would be targeted in attacks
Strategic Sites like power units and communication sites, and preferably places where actual people wouldn’t get killed
What day was the first major MK act of sabotage planned to be
16th December 1961
What was the PAC’s military wing called
Poqo
Name one violent action made by Poqo
The 1962 Paarl March, which turned violent and killed 2 white people, with 5 protestors also dying
How differently were MK and Poqo seen by White Media
Poqo were seen as much more savage and evil
Of the men executed by hanging after political trials in th 1960s, how many were Poqo members and how many MK
Poqo - 62
MK - 7
Give 4 reasons why the ANC and PAC couldn’t maintain their armed struggle to the same capacity as the early 1960s
- There was no physical base to organise
- They had little training in paramilitary operations
- They had little foreign support
- The repressive power of the state
Describe the arrest of Mandela (include date and location)
He was arrested at Liliesleaf Farm in the Johannesburg Suburb of Rivonia on the 11th July 1963, as he was present at the property when a police raid took place there
What years were the Rivonia Trial
1963-1964
What was the outcome of the Rivonia Trial
Despite the prosecution pushing for the death penalty, the judge gave Mandela, Sisulu and others life imprisonment
Where was Mandela initially imprisoned
Robben Island
Who took over the ANC from 1965-1984 during most of Mandela’s imprisonment
Joe Modise
When did Tambo exile himself and where to
He fled to Botswana in 1960, then travelled all over the world seeking support for th Anti Apartheid Cause
Which countries did Tambo receive most financial contributions from on his travels
the USSR and Sweden
Why did the ANC and PAC activity rapidly decrease by the end of 1963
Its leaders were either imprisoned, had escaped the country, or understood it was to dangerous to be openly political
Name 3 people who were crucial in the AAM movement and their background
Trevor Huddleston - A bishop who had connections to Sophiatown
Ambrose Reeves - The Bishop of Johannesburg who was deported for his Anti Apartheid preachings
E.S. Reddy - A UN politician who became involved fighting Apartheid after a chance meeting with ex-ANC leader Dr Xuma
Why did anti Apartheid activists focus on sports
Sports was beloved to many White Africans and excluding them would have a large effect on them
When was SA banned from international competitions by FIFA
1963
What happened to SA regarding the Olympics and who orchestrated this
Dennis Brutus formed the South African Non-Racial Olympic Committee in 1962. Alongside external support, Brutus was able to get the Olympics to ban SA from the Olympics
What years were SA banned from the Olympics
1964-1988
How did the English Cricket Team accidentally raise a lot of anger against Apartheid
SA had an all white player policy, including for visiting teams. Englands most in form player in 1968, Basil D’Oliveria, was coloured, and England left him out of their squad when travelling to play SA. This sparked an outrage, so after someone else got injured, D’Oliveira was put in the squad. This made SA refuse to allow the tour. D’Oliveira got over 20,000 letters of support from England and elsewhere, and raised awareness about the unfairness of Apartheid
What happened in the NP in 1966
Verwoerd was assassinated, and Vorster became PM
Provide the 4 main reasons why SA strengthened Apartheid from 1960-1968
- Economic Improvements
- Development of Bantustans
- Diplomatic Ties
- Use of Police Powers
SA employment in manufacturing (mostly Black) rose from ____ in 1951 to ____ in 1975
1951: 855,000
1975: 1.6 million
GDP per capita for Black South Africans increased by __% throughout the 1960s
23%
GDP per capita for White South Africans increased by __% throughout the 1960s
50%
From 1950-73, the GDP of SA increased by an average of __% a year
4.6%
What 2 changes to African living made Apartheid stronger
- Most politicised townships were demolished and replaced with less politicised ones
- A Black middle class emerged who were at the time content with what they had
What were the 3 main organisations in Townships which made Black people happier
Churches, Choirs, Football Clubs
How did live improve for Black Women in the 1960s
They (sometimes legally, sometimes not) moved to major cities which were less patriarcal, where they could find work as servants or selling beer
What month was the first self-governing Bantustan established and which one was it
Transkei in December 1963
Who led Transkei after it became self-governing and why was this unfair
Kaiser Matanzima, who lost the election there to Victor Poto but got support from the government as he was on their side
How was Transkei rewarded for being loyal in leadership
Given significant development and became a model for homeland development. The education and healthcare drastically improved and a rural African middle class emerged
Why did some Africans become rich in self-governing homelands
Many White businesses in the Homelands were bought out by the homeland government and redistributed to Africans who became successful businessmen
Name 3 Bantustans other than Transkei that benefitted after becoming self-governing
KwaZulu. Bophutatswana (For the Tswana people) and Lebowa (formerly Sekhukhuneland)
Describe SA’s relationship with other African countries including the following: international group, their actions with SA and year of set up
Bad - most were anti-Apartheid. In 1963 the Organisation of African Unity, made from newly independent countries, opposed SA and funded liberation movements
Why were SA considered ‘safe’ from the threat of other African countries
They were shielded - Namibia was under SA rule, Botswana was economically dependent on SA, Rhodesia was under White Rule too, and Mozambique and Angola was still Portuguese colonies
How did Vorster affect international relations after coming into power
Created ties with Malawi, and secured lots of international trade relations from businesses in Japan, USA and Western Europe
Name a way that Vorster increased police powers
- Before Vorster, the Police were given legal authority to detain suspects without trial for up to 180 days
- Under the Terrorism Act of 1967, suspects could be detained without trial indefinitely
What was John Vorster Square
A police HQ opened in 1968, which became infamous for being the centre of torture, disfigurement and abuse of suspects. 8 people died in Police Care there
