Sociology-Beliefs-Organisations/Movements/Members

Question 1

What are the types of religious organisation?

Answer 1

Church and sect, denomination and cult, new religious movements, and sects and cults

Question 2

Who was the first person to attempt to identify the features of different types of religious organisation?

Answer 2

Ernst Troeltsch, who distinguished between two main types; the church and the sect

Question 3

How does Troeltsch define churches?

Answer 3

Large organisations, often with millions of members such as the catholic church, run by a bureaucratic hierarchy of professional priests, and they claim a monopoly of the truth. They are universalistic, aiming to include the whole of society, although they tend to be more attractive to the higher classes as they are ideologically conservative and often closely linked to the state (eg British sovereign is head of both state and church of England)

Question 4

How does Troeltsch define sects?

Answer 4

Small, exclusive groups. Unlike churches, sects are hostile to wider society and they expect a high level of commitment. They draw their members from the poor and oppressed. Many are led by a charismatic leader rather than a bureaucratic hierarchy. The only similarity with churches is that sects too believe they have a monopoly of religious truth

Question 5

What does Niebuhr talk about?

Answer 5

He talks about denominations such as Methodism, and describes them as lying midway between churches and sects. Membership is less exclusive than a sect, but they don’t appeal to the whole of society like a church. Like churches they broadly accept society’s values but are not linked to the state. They impose some minor restrictions on members, such as forbidding alcohol, but are not as demanding as sects. Unlike both church and sect, they are tolerant of other religious organisations and don’t claim monopoly of the truth

Question 6

What is a cult?

Answer 6

Highly individualistic, loose-knit and usually small grouping around some shared themes and interests, but usually without a sharply defined and exclusive belied system. Usually led by ‘practitioners’ or ‘therapists’, who claim special knowledge. Like denominations, cults are usually tolerant of other organisations and their beliefs. They don’t demand strong commitment from followers, who are often more like customers or trainees than members. They may have little further involvement with the cult once they’ve acquired its beliefs and techniques. Many are world-affirming, claiming to improve life in this world

Question 7

What two characteristics does Wallis highlight when summing up the similarities and differences between religious organisations?

Answer 7

How they see themselves (churches and sects claim a monopoly but denominations and cults accept there are many valid interpretations), and how they are seen by wider society (churches and denominations are seen as respectable and legitimate but sects and cults are seen as deviant)

Question 8

What does Bruce argue about Troeltsch’s definitions?

Answer 8

His idea of a church having religious monopoly only applies to the catholic church before the 16th century protestant reformation, when it had a religious monopoly over society, symbolised by its massive and imposing cathedrals. Since then, sects and cults have flourished and religious diversity has become the norm

Question 9

How have religious organisations changed in todays society?

Answer 9

Churches are no longer truly churches in Troelsch’s sense because they have lost their monopoly and been reduced to the status of denominations competing with all the rest

Question 10

Since the 1960s there have been many new religious movements, what are some examples?

Answer 10

The Unification Church, the Children of God, Transcendental Meditation, Krishna Consciousness and many more

Question 11

How does Wallis categorise these new religious movements?

Answer 11

World-rejecting, world-accommodating and world-affirming

Question 12

What are world-rejecting new religious movements?

Answer 12

Similar to Troeltsch’s sects. Examples include the Unification Church, Krishna Consciousness, Children of God, the Mason Family, the Branch Davidian and the People’s Temple. They vary greatly in size, from a handful of members to hundreds and thousands

Question 13

What are the characteristics of world-rejecting NRMs?

Answer 13

Clearly religious organisations with a clear notion of God, they are highly critical of the outside world and they expect or seek radical change, to achieve salvation members must make a sharp break with their former life, members live communally with restricted contact with the outside world (movement controls all aspects of their lives and is often accused of ‘brainwashing’ them), they often have conservative moral codes

Question 14

What are world-accommodating NRMs?

Answer 14

Often breakaways from existing mainstream churches or denominations, such as neo-Pentecostalists who split from catholicism, or Subud from Islam. They neither accept nor reject the world, and they often focus on religious rather than worldly matters, seeking to restore the spiritual purity of religion. Eg neo-pentecostalists believe that other Christian religions have lost the Holy Spirit. Members tend to lead conventional lives

Question 15

What are world-affirming NRMs?

Answer 15

These groups differ from all other religious groups and may lack some of the conventional features of religion, such as collective worship, and some are not highly organised. However, like religions, the offer their followers access to spiritual or supernatural powers. Examples include Scientology, Soka Gakkai, TM and Human Potential

Question 16

What are the characteristics of world-affirming NRMs?

Answer 16

They accept the world as it is. They are optimistic and promise followers success in terms of mainstream goals and values eg careers and relationships. They are non-exclusive and tolerant of other religions, but claim to offer additional special knowledge or techniques to help followers unlock their own spiritual powers and achieve success. They have been described as psychologising religions offering this-worldly gratification. Most are cults, whose followers are often customers rather than members, and entry is through training. The movement place few demands on them and they carry on normal lives

Question 17

In general, out of all of the NRMs studied by Wallis, which ones are the most successful?

Answer 17

World-affirming NRMs. Eg scientology had about 165,000 members in the UK in 2005 as compared with only 1,200 from the Unification Church

Question 18

What is the evaluation for new religious movements?

Answer 18

Wallis offers a useful way of classifying the new religious movements but some argue it is not clear whether he is categorising them according to the movement’s teachings, or individual members’ beliefs. He ignores the diversity of beliefs that may exist within an NRM

Question 19

How does Wallis himself evaluate his categorisation?

Answer 19

Recognises that real NRMs will rarely fit neatly into his typology and some, such as 3HO (Health happy holy organisation) may have features of all three types. Nevertheless, many sociologists find such typologies useful as a way of analysing and comparing the significant features of NRMs

Question 20

How do Stark and Bainbridge evaluate new religious movements?

Answer 20

They reject the idea of constructing such typologies altogether. Instead they argue we should distinguish between religious organisations using just one criterion-the degree of conflict or tension between the religious group and wider society

Question 21

What two groups do Stark and Bainbridge identify that are in conflict with wider society?

Answer 21

Sects (result from schisms-splits in existing organisations. Break away from churches usually due to disagreements about doctrines) and cults (new religions or ones new too that particular society)

Question 22

In general, how do Stark and Bainbridge see sects and cults?

Answer 22

See sects as promising other-worldly benefits to those suffering economic or ethical deprivation, and see cults as offering this-worldly benefits to more prosperous individuals suffering psychic and organismic deprivation (normlessness and health problems)

Question 23

How do Stark and Bainbridge subdivide cults?

Answer 23

According to how organised they are. They split them into audience cults, client cults and cultic movements

Question 24

What are audience cults?

Answer 24

Least organised and don’t involve formal membership or much commitment. There is little interaction between members. Participation may be through the media. Examples include astrology and UFO cults

Question 25

What are client cults?

Answer 25

Based on the relationship between a consultant and a client, and provide services to their followers. In the past, they were often purveyors of medical miracles, contact with the dead etc, but the emphasis has shifted to 'therapies' promising personal fulfilment and self-discovery

Question 26

What are cultic movements?

Answer 26

Most organised and demand a higher level of commitment than other cults. Movements aim to meet all its members religious needs and unlike followers of audience and client cults, they are rarely allowed to belong to other religious groups at the same time. An example is the Unification Church. Some client cults become cultic movements for their most enthusiastic followers eg scientology.

Question 27

What are the reasons for the rapid growth in new religious movements, and sects and cults since the 1960s?

Answer 27

Marginality, relative deprivation, social change, the dynamics of sects and NRMs, the growth of the New Age, postmodernity and the New Age

Question 28

Who talks about marginality and the growth of religious movements?

Answer 28

Troeltsch notes that sects tend to draw members from the poor and oppressed. Weber also notes that sects tend to arise in groups who are marginal to society. Such groups may feel they are disprivileged-not receiving their just economic rewards or social status.

Question 29

In Weber's view, how do sects offer a solution to marginalised groups?

Answer 29

They offer their members a theodicy of disprivilege-a religious explanation and justification for their suffering and disadvantage. This may explain their misfortune as a test of faith eg while holding out the promise of rewards in the future for keeping the faith

Question 30

Historically, how has marginality played a part in religious movements?

Answer 30

Many sects, as well as millenarian movements have recruited from the marginalised poor. Eg in the 20th century the Nation of Islam recruited successfully among disadvantaged blacks int he USA

Question 31

Does marginality play a part in religious movements today?

Answer 31

Since the 1960s, the sect like world-rejecting NRMs have recruited mainly from more affluent groups of often well-educated young, middle class white

Question 32

What does Wallis argue about the recruitment process of sects since the 1960s?

Answer 32

He argues this does not contradict Weber's view, because many of these individuals had become marginal to society. Despite their middle class origins, most were hippies, dropouts and drug users

Question 33

What is relative deprivation?

Answer 33

It refers to the subjective sense of being deprived. This means that it is possible for someone who in reality is quite privileged to feel that they are deprived or disadvantaged in some way compared with others. Meaning the middle class are materially 'well off' but may feel spiritually deprived, especially in today's materialist, consumerist world which they may perceive as impersonal, so Wallis argues they may turn to sects for a sense of community

Question 34

What do Stark and Bainbridge argue about relative deprivation?

Answer 34

That it is the relatively deprived who break away from churches to form sects. When middle-class members of a church seek to compromise its beliefs in order to fit into society, deprived members are likely to break away to form sects that safeguard the original message of the organisation

Question 35

What is an example of Stark and Bainbridge's view of relative deprivation?

Answer 35

Deprived may stress Christ's claim that it's harder for rich man to enter Kingdom of Heaven than camel to pass through eye of needle (the better off may want to play this down). By contrast the deprived may emphasise Christ's message that 'the meek shall inherit the Earth'. Stark and Bainbridge argue world-rejecting sects off the deprived the compensators they need for rewards they are denied in this world. By contrast the privileged need no compensators or world-rejecting religion-they're attracted to world-accepting churches that express status and bring further success in achieving earthly rewards (similar to Wallis' two main types of NRMs)

Question 36

How is social change an explanation for the recent growth of religious movements?

Answer 36

Wilson argues that periods of rapid change disrupt and undermine established norms and values, producing anomie or normlessness. In response to uncertainty and insecurity that this creates, those who are most affected by the disruption may turn to sects as a solution

Question 37

What is an example of how social change has led to growth in religious movements?

Answer 37

The dislocation created by the industrial revolution in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th century led to the birth of Methodism, which offered a sense of community, warmth and fellowship with clear norms and value and the promise of salvation. Methodism succeeded in recruiting large numbers of the new industrial working class

Question 38

What does Bruce argue about social change and the growth in religious movements?

Answer 38

Similarly, he sees the growth of sects and cults today as a response to the social changes involved in modernisation and secularisation. In his view, society is now secularised and therefore people are less attracted to the traditional churches and strict sects, because these demand too much commitment. Instead people now prefer cults as they are less demanding and require fewer sacrifices

Question 39

How has the growth of world-rejecting NRMs been explained?

Answer 39

Wallis points to social change from the 1960s impacting on young people, including the increased time spent in education. This gave freedom from adult responsibilities and enabled a counter-culture to develop. Also growth of radical political movements offered alternative ideas about the future. World-rejecting NRMs were attractive in this context as they offered young people a more idealistic way of life

Question 40

What does Bruce argue about social change and the growth of world-rejecting NRMs?

Answer 40

Argues that it was the failure of the counter culture to change the world that led to disillusioned youth turning to religion instead

Question 41

How has the growth of world-affirming NRMs been explained?

Answer 41

Bruce argues that their growth is a response to modernity, especially to the rationalisation of work. Work no longer provides meaning or a source of identity-unlike the past, when the protestant ethic gave work a religious meaning for some people, yet at the same time, we are expected to achieve-even though we may lack the opportunity to succeed. World-affirming NRMs provide both a sense of identity and techniques that promise success in the world

Question 42

What else does Wallis note about the growth of NRMs?

Answer 42

Some movements of the middle ground such as the Jesus Freaks have grown since the mid 1970s. These have attracted disillusioned former members of world rejecting NRMs (which have generally been less successful) because they provide a halfway house back to a more conventional lifestyle

Question 43

How long do sects and NRMs survive for?

Answer 43

While churches such as the Catholic Church and the Church of England have a history stretching over many centuries, sects by contrast are often short-lived organisations, frequently lasting only a single generation or less. Sociologists have therefore been interested to understand the dynamics of sect development. There is also interest in how the NRMs described by Wallis will fare in the long term

Question 44

What are the dynamics of sects and NRMs?

Answer 44

Denomination or death, the sectarian cycle and established sects

Question 45

What does Niebuhr argue about the dynamics of sects and NRMs?

Answer 45

Sects are world-rejecting organisations that come into existence because of schism. Argues that sects are short lived and that within a generation, they either die out or they compromise with the word, abandon their extreme denomination

Question 46

What are the reasons for denomination or death?

Answer 46

The second generation (born into the sect lack the commitment and fervour of their parents who had consciously rejected the world and joined voluntarily). The 'protestant ethic' effect (sects that practice asceticism tend to become prosperous and upwardly mobile eg Methodists in 19th century, so some members may be tempted to compromise with the world and leave or abandon the world-rejecting beliefs). Death of the leader (sects with charismatic leaders either collapse on their death or a more formal bureaucratic leader takes over, transforming it into a denomination)

Question 47

What is the sectarian cycle?

Answer 47

Stark and Bainbridge see religious organisations as moving through a cycle. 1) schism (tension between needs of deprived and privileged members of church) so deprived break away to found world-rejecting sect. 2) Initial fervour with charismatic leadership/great tension between sects beliefs and wider society. 3) Denominationalism, the 'protestant ethic' effect and the coolness of the second generation means fervour disappears. 4) Establishment-sect becomes more world-accepting and tension with society reduces. 5) Further schism when more zealous/less privileged members break away to found new sect true to original message

Question 48

What does Wilson argue about the patterns of sects outlined by Niebuhr and Stark and Bainbridge?

Answer 48

Not all sects follow those patterns. Whether they do or don't depends on how the sect answers the question, 'what shall we do to be saved?'. This results in either conventionists or adventists

Question 49

What are conventionist sects?

Answer 49

Eg evangelicals, whose aim is to convert large numbers of people. They are likely to grow rapidly into larger, more formal denominations

Question 50

What are adventists sects?

Answer 50

Eg Seventh Day Adventists or Jehovah's Witnesses. They await the second coming of Christ. To be saved, they believe they must hold themselves separate from the corrupt world around them. This separatism prevents them from compromising and becoming a denomination

Question 51

How does Wilson argue against the argument that sects don't survive for long?

Answer 51

Some sects have survived over many generations such as Adventists, Pentecostalists, the Amish, Mormons and Quakers for example. Instead of becoming denominations, they become established sects. Contrary to Niebuhr's predictions, many of them have succeeded in socialising their children into a high level of commitment, largely by keeping them apart from the wider world

Question 52

What does Wilson argue about the future of sects?

Answer 52

Globalisation will make it harder in the future for sects to keep themselves separate from the outside world. On the other hand, globalisation will make it easier to recruit in the Third World, where there are large numbers of deprived people for whom the message of sects is attractive, as the success of Pentecostalists has shown

Question 53

What is the New Age?

Answer 53

The term covers a range of beliefs and activities that have been widespread since at least the 1980s

Question 54

What does Heelas estimate about the growth of the New Age?

Answer 54

Estimates that there are about 2,000 such activities and 146,000 practitioners in the UK. Many of them are very loosely organised audience or client cults. They are extremely diverse and eclectic and include belief in UFOs, aliens, astrology, tarot, crystals and various forms of alternative medicine/psychotherapy, yoga, meditation, magic etc

Question 55

According to Heelas, what are the two common themes that characterise the New Age?

Answer 55

Self spirituality (New Agers seeking the spiritual have turned away from traditional 'external' religions such as the churches and instead look inside themselves to find it) and detraditionalisation (The New Age rejects spiritual authority of external traditional sources such as priests or sacred texts. Instead it values personal experience and believes we can discover truth for ourselves and within ourselves)

Question 56

Beyond these two common themes, what are other beliefs of the New Age?

Answer 56

Aside from the two common features, New Age beliefs vary eg they include world-affirming aspects that help people succeed in the everyday outer world, as well as world-rejecting elements that allow individuals to achieve enlightenment in their inner world. However, Heelas argues that most New Age beliefs and organisations offer both

Question 57

Several explanations for the popularity of the New Age have been offered, what is an example?

Answer 57

Drane argues that its appeal is part of a shift towards postmodern society. A feature of postmodern society is a loss of faith in meta-narratives or claims to have 'the truth'. Science promised to bring progress to a better world but instead it has given war, genocide, environmental destruction and global warming. As a result, people lose faith in experts/professionals such as scientists/doctors and are disillusioned with the churches' failure to meet their spiritual needs. As a result they turn to New Age idea that each of us can fund truth for ourselves by looking within

Question 58

By contrast, what does Bruce argue about the New Age and postmodernity?

Answer 58

He argues the growth of the New Age is a feature of the latest phase of modern society, not postmodernity. Modern society values individualism, which is a key principle of New Age beliefs. It is also a particularly important value among those in 'expressive professions; concerned with human potential, such as community workers or artists-the group whom New Age appeals most

Question 59

What does Bruce also note about New Age beliefs?

Answer 59

They are often softer versions of much more demanding and self disciplined traditional Eastern religions such as Buddhism tat have been 'watered down' to make them palatable to self-centred Westeners. This explains why New Age activities are often audience or client cults, as these make few demands on followers. Bruce sees New Age eclecticism (spiritual shopping) as typical of religion in late modern society, reflecting the consumerist ethos of capitalist society

Question 60

What does Heelas argue about the New Age and modernity?

Answer 60

They are linked in four ways: a source of identity, consumer culture, rapid social change and decline of organised religion

Question 61

How is the New Age and modernity linked by a source of identity?

Answer 61

In modern society, the individual has many different roles (at work, in the family, with friends etc) but there is little overlap between them, resulting in a fragmented identity. New Age beliefs offer a source of 'authentic' identity

Question 62

How is the New Age and modernity linked by consumer culture?

Answer 62

Consumer culture creates dissatisfaction because it never delivers the perfection that it promises (eg in advertising). The New Age offers an alternative way to achieve perfection

Question 63

How is the New Age and modernity linked by rapid social change?

Answer 63

Rapid social change in modern society disrupts established norms and values, resulting in anomie. The New Age provides a sense of certainty and truth in the same way as sects

Question 64

How is the New Age and modernity linked by decline of organised religion?

Answer 64

Modernity leads to secularisation, thereby removing the traditional alternatives to New Age beliefs. For example, in the USA, the New Age is the strongest where churchgoing is at its lowest, in California

Question 65

What does Davie note about gender and religiosity?

Answer 65

There are gender differences in terms of religious practices, belief, self-identification, private prayer and many other aspects of religiosity

Question 66

What are examples of the gender difference in religion?

Answer 66

Most churchgoers are female, who are more likely to attend church regularly and outnumber males by almost half a million (Brierley). 55% women say they have a religion compared to 44% men (BSA survey). 38% women say religion is important compared to 26% men (BSA survey). 34% women are agnostic or atheist compared to 54% men (Voas). In all major faiths in UK except Sikhs, women are more likely to practise their religion (Ferguson and Hussey). Women express greater interest in religion and have stronger personal commitment (Miller and Hoffman)

Question 67

What are the reasons for gender differences in religiosity?

Answer 67

Risk socialisation and roles, paid work

Question 68

What three reasons do Miller and Hoffman give for women's higher levels of religiosity?

Answer 68

Risk, socialisation and roles

Question 69

How does risk lead to women being more religious?

Answer 69

They suggest gender differences in risk taking are reasons for differences in religiosity. By not being religious, people are risking that religion might be right and they will be condemned to hell. As men are less risk averse than women, they are more likely to take the risk of not being religious

Question 70

What does Davie note about risk taking and religiosity?

Answer 70

The virtual disappearance today of the dangers associated with childbirth that women faced throughout history, means women in Western societies face fewer risks and may be becoming less religious as a result

Question 71

How does socialisation lead to women being more religious?

Answer 71

Women are more religious as they are socialised to be more passive, obedient and caring. These are qualities values by most religions, so it follows that women are more likely than men to be attracted to religion. Interestingly, men who have these qualities are also more likely to be religious

Question 72

How do gender roles lead to women being more religious?

Answer 72

Women's gender roles mean they are more likely than men to work as part/full time carers, so they have more scope for organising time to participate in religious activities. Women are also more likely to be attracted to the church as a source of gender identity and Greeley argues their role in taking care of family members increases their religiosity as it involves responsibility for 'ultimate' welfare as well as everyday needs

Question 73

What does Davie argue about women's gender roles and religiosity?

Answer 73

Women are closer to birth and death which brings them closer to 'ultimate' questions about meaning of life that religion is concerned with. This also fits with differences i the way men and women see God: men are more likely to see a God of power and control, while women tend to see a God of love and forgiveness

Question 74

How does Bruce argue paid work leads to women's higher level of religiosity?

Answer 74

It is a result of women's lower levels of involvement in paid work. He links this to secularisation processes such as rationalisation. Over past two centuries this has gradually driven religion out of male dominated public sphere of work, confining it to the private sphere of family and personal life that women are more concerned with. Religion has become privatised so mens religiosity declined more quickly than women's

Question 75

What does Brown argue about women and religiosity?

Answer 75

By the late 1960s many women had also taken on secular masculinised roles in the public sphere of paid work and led to what Brown calls 'the decline of female piety': women too were withdrawing from religion

Question 76

Despite the decline, why does religion remain more attractive to women than to men?

Answer 76

Religion has a strong affinity with values such as caring for others-women continue to have a primary role in caring for the young and old, both in private sphere of family and in the kind of paid work they often do. Also men's withdrawal from religion in the last centuries meant that churches gradually become feminised spaces that emphasise women's concerns such as caring and relationships

Question 77

What does Woodhead argue about women's higher level of religiosity?

Answer 77

The feminisation of churches continues to make religion more attractive to women. The introduction of women priests in the Church of England in 1994 and women bishops in 2015 may have reinforced this

Question 78

To consider other reasons for the greater appeal of religion to women, what are three specific examples?

Answer 78

Women and the New Age, women, compensators and sects, and the pentecostal gender paradox

Question 79

Why is the New Age more appealing to women?

Answer 79

As women are more often associated with 'nature' (eg through childbirth) and a healing role ,they may be more attracted than men to New Age movements and ideas, eg Heelas and Woodhead found that 80% of the participants in the holistic milieu in Kendal were female. This is because these movements often celebrate natural and involve cults of healing which gives women a higher status and sense of self worth

Question 80

What does Bruce about women the New Age?

Answer 80

Women's experience of child-rearing make them less aggressive and goal-oriented, and more cooperative and caring-where men wish to achieve, women wish to feel. In Bruce's view, this fits the expressive emphasis of the New Age

Question 81

Why else may women be more attracted to the New Age?

Answer 81

Because it emphasises the importance of being 'authentic' rather than merely acting out roles-including gender roles. Women may be more attracted than men to this because they are more likely to perceive their roles as restrictive

Question 82

How does the individual sphere to affect women and the New Age?

Answer 82

Women in paid work may experience a role conflict between masculinised and instrumental role in public sphere of work, and their traditional expressive feminine role in the private sphere of the family. Woodhead suggests that these women find New Age beliefs attractive as they appeal to a third-individual-sphere, concerned with individual autonomy and personal growth creating a new source of identity for women based on their inner self rather than contradictory social/gender roles, giving them a sense of wholeness

Question 83

What does Brown argue about women and the New Age?

Answer 83

The New Age 'self' religions-those that emphasise subjective experience rather than external authority-attract women recruits as they appeal to women's wish for autonomy. On the other hand, some women may be attracted to fundamentalism because of the certainties of traditional gender roles that it prescribes for them

Question 84

What does Bruce argue about class differences, women and religion

Answer 84

There are class differences in the types of religion that appeal to women. While New Age beliefs and practices emphasising personal autonomy, control and self-development appeal to some middle-class women, working-class women are more attracted to ideas that give them a passive role, such as belief in an powerful God or fatalistic ideas such as superstition, horoscopes or lucky charms (consistent with class differences in areas such as Education)

Question 85

What does Bruce argue about women and sects?

Answer 85

Estimates there are twice as many women as men involved in sects. One explanation for this comes from religious market theorists Stark and Bainbridge who argue people may participate in sects because they offer compensators for organismic, ethical and social deprivation. These forms of deprivation are more common among women and this explains their higher level of sect membership

Question 86

What is organismic deprivation?

Answer 86

Stems from physical and mental health problems. Women are more likely to suffer ill health and thus to seek healing that sects offers

Question 87

What is ethical deprivation?

Answer 87

Women tend to be more morally conservative. They are therefore more likely to regard the world as being in moral decline and be attracted to sects, which often share this view

Question 88

What is social deprivation?

Answer 88

Sects attract poorer groups and women are more likely to be poor

Question 89

How has Pentecostalism grown?

Answer 89

Since the 1970s it has grown rapidly in many parts of the world, particularly among the poor, eg in Latin America an estimated 13% of the continent's are now members of Pentecostal churches

Question 90

What is Pentecostalism?

Answer 90

It is generally regarded as a patriarchal form of religion; men are seen both as heads of households and heads of church (all clergy are male). Despite this, pentecostalism has proved attractive to women. Martin calls this as the 'pentecostal gender paradox'

Question 91

What did Brusco's study of Pentecostals in Colombia find?

Answer 91

She found the answer to the gender paradox lies in the fact that pentecostalism demands its followers adopt an ascetic lifestyle. This resembles the personal discipline of the 16th century Calvinists. Pentecostalism also insists on a traditional gender division of labour that requires men to provide for their family

Question 92

How can Pentecostal women use these ideas to benefit them?

Answer 92

They can use them to combat a widespread culture of machismo in Latin America where men often spend 20-40% of household income on alcohol, plus further spending on gambling, tobacco and prostitutes. Pentecostal men are pressured by their pastor and church community to change their ways and act responsibility, therefore redirecting income to household and raising women/children's standard of living. So although it doesn't offer Western style women's liberation it is popular with women in Latin America

Question 93

What does Drogus also note about Pentecostalism?

Answer 93

Although official Pentecostal doctrine is that men should have authority over women, church magazines and educational materials often encourage more equal relations within marriage

Question 94

What are recent trends of gender and religiosity?

Answer 94

Women remain more likely to be religious but there has been an overall decline, some reasons being women's movement into paid work and rejection of traditional subordinate gender roles. As traditional religions tend to be closely linked to traditional gender roles, women's rejection of subordination leads to rejection of traditional religion at the same time, though some are now attracted to New Age beliefs and practices, though their numbers are relatively low

Question 95

How is the UK a multi ethnic and multi religious society?

Answer 95

The biggest religious group are those describing themselves as Christians (72% of population), there are significant numbers of Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs, almost all of whom belong to ethnic minorities originating in the Indian subcontinent, while many Christians are of black African or Caribbean origin

Question 96

What are some of the clear ethnic patterns in religious participation shown by Brierley in London?

Answer 96

Black people are twice as likely to attend church as white people. Muslims, Hindus and black Christians are considerably more likely than white Christians to see their religion as important and to attend a place of worship each week. Among Christians, blacks are more likely than whites to be found in Pentecostal churches where they make up 40% of the membership

Question 97

Although minorities have higher religious participation rates, what did Modood et al find?

Answer 97

There was some decline in the importance of religion for all ethnic groups, and that fewer were observant, especially among the second generation

Question 98

What are the reasons for ethnic differences?

Answer 98

There have been several, one is that most ethnic minorities originate from poorer countries with traditional cultures, both of which produce higher levels of religious belief and practice, which is maintained when they move to the UK. However, this disregards the impact of their experiences as immigrants and minorities in a new society, and how this may give religion a new role as cultural defence and cultural transition

Question 99

What is cultural defence?

Answer 99

Bruce argues that a religion in such situations (immigration) offers support and a sense of cultural identity in an uncertain or hostile environment

Question 100

What does Bird note about cultural defence?

Answer 100

Religion among minorities can be a basis for community solidarity, a means of preserving one's culture and language, and a way of coping with oppression in a racist society. In the case of black African and Caribbean Christians, many found that white churches in the UK did not actively welcome them and so some turned to founding or joining black-led churches, especially Pentecostal churches

Question 101

What does Brierley show about cultural defence?

Answer 101

Shows a significant growth of new churches in London catering for specific languages and nationalities as a result of recent immigration

Question 102

What is cultural transition?

Answer 102

Religion can also be a means of easing the transition into a new culture by providing support and a sense of community for minority groups in their new environment

Question 103

What does Herberg argue about cultural transition?

Answer 103

this explanation gives for high levels of religious participation first-generation immigrants in the USA

Question 104

What does Bruce say about cultural transition?

Answer 104

He sees a similar pattern to Herberg in the history of immigration into the UK, where religion has provided a focal point for Irish, African Caribbean, Muslim, Hindu and other communities. However, once a group (such as Irish Catholics) has made the transition into the wider society, religion may lose its role and decline in importance

Question 105

What did Pryce find about reasons for ethnic differences in religion?

Answer 105

His study of African Caribbean community in Bristol shows both cultural defence and cultural transition have been important. He argues that pentecostalism is highly adaptive religion of the oppressed that provided migrants with values appropriate to the new world in which they found themselves. It helped African Caribbeans adapt to British society, playing a protestant ethic role in helping members succeed by encouraging self reliance and thrift. Gave mutual support and hop of improving their situation. However Rastafarianism represents a different response for some African Caribbeans radically rejecting wider society as racist and exploitative

Question 106

What are patterns for age and religious participation?

Answer 106

The general pattern of religious participation is that the older a person is, the more likely they are to attend religious services, though there is a partial exception that under 15s are generally more likely to go to church than most other age groups as they don't have as much as a choice, it's their parents choice. For any given age group apart from 65 and over, there is an ongoing fall in church attendance, most sharply among the young

Question 107

What does Brieley not about age and religion?

Answer 107

By 2026, 15-19 year olds will only be 2.5% of churchgoers. Half of all English churches have no one under 20 attending

Question 108

What are the reasons for age differences in religiosity?

Answer 108

Voas and Crockett suggest three possible explanations: the ageing effect, the period or cohort effect, and secularisation

Question 109

How is the ageing effect an explanation for age differences in religiosity?

Answer 109

It is the view that people turn to religion as they get older. Eg from the Kendal Project, Heelas argues that people become more interested in spirituality as they age. As we approach death, we 'naturally' become more concerned about spiritual matters and the afterlife, repentance of past misdeeds and so on. As a result, we are more likely to go to church

Question 110

How is the period or cohort effect an explanation for age differences in religiosity?

Answer 110

People born during a particular period may be more or less likely to be religious because of the particular events they lived through, such as war or rapid social changes

Question 111

How is secularisation an explanation for age differences in religiosity?

Answer 111

As religion declines in importance, each generation becomes less religion than the one before it

Question 112

What do Voas and Crockett argue is the main explanation for age differences in religion?

Answer 112

They found little evidence for the first two explanations and so argue secularisation is the main reason. They found that in each succeeding generation, only half as many people are religious compared with the generation before it

Question 113

How do Arweck and Beckford explain the fact that new generations become less religions than the one before it?

Answer 113

They describe it as the 'virtual collapse of religious socialisation' after the 1960s eg traditional Sunday schools which in the 1950s enrolled a third of all 14 year olds, have all but disappeared

Question 114

What does Voas argue about reasons for generations becoming less religious?

Answer 114

Even parents who share the same faith have only a 50/50 chance of raising their child to be a churchgoer as an adult. When they are of different faiths, the chances fall to one in four

Question 115

What is likely to be the future for ages and religion?

Answer 115

Likely to see a steadily ageing population of churchgoers. In 2015, one in three were aged 65 or over, but by 2025 this will be over four in ten without significant numbers of young people joining the congregations, within two or three generations practicing Christians will have become a very small and old minority of the UK population