Sociological Theories of Crime

Question 1

What does Bowlby suggest about attachment to caregivers and criminality?

Answer 1

Bowlby’s attachment theory explained that without secure attachment in the first two years of life, the consequence of maternal
deprivation can include delinquency, increased aggression and
psychopathy. Bowlby’s findings were supported by American psychiatrist
Dorothy Lewis who found that serious criminality is caused by key events in
childhood such as abuse as a child or witnessing a violent event.

Question 2

How can Bowbly’s attachment theory be seen in the UKs prison population?

Answer 2

This can be supported by 2021 Ministry of Justice figures that show 24% of prisoners
were taken into care as a child (compared to 2% of the general population)
and 41% had observed violence in the home as a child (compared to 14% of
the general population).

Question 3

Summarise international comparators of the impact of socio-economics and criminality.

Answer 3

In 2020 in Scotland, figures showed
that approximately 34% of prisoners came from the 10% most deprived
areas. Only 1% came from the 10% least deprived areas. Similarly, in the
US there is a correlation between poverty and incarceration ― 2020 findings from the American Action Forum found that adults in poverty are three times more likely to be arrested than those who aren’t and the
percentage of those in poverty before being arrested was 57% for men and
72% for women compared to a national poverty rate of 11%. Indeed, these
correlations are clear across the world in Brazil, 95% of prisoners are poor

Question 4

How might Becker’s labelling theory explain racial inequalities in the CJS?

Answer 4

In the US, there is
evidence that young black males may be labelled as deviant by law
enforcement. African American males are incarcerated at five times the
rate of white Americans. A 2021 study entitled ‘The Color of Justice’
showed that black Americans as young as nine felt they were treated
differently by law enforcement. In England and Wales, in 2021, 27% of the
prison population was from a minority ethnic group compared to 13% of
the UK population (2020 estimates).

Question 5

What is the labelling theory?

Answer 5

Essentially, the argument is that the criminal or deviant is an individual who
has been labelled by society. Labelling is a process by which individuals
and/or groups classify certain types of behaviour and certain individuals. The
actions and motives of the labeller is a key concern as it highlights issues of
who has the power to impose their definitions on others and of the extent to
which there is selective enforcement of the law. Giddens (1993) argues that
‘the labels applied to create categories of deviance thus express the power
structure of society’.

Question 6

What is Durkheim’s beliefs on crime?

Answer 6

Crime is seen by Durkheim as a social fact and therefore it must play a purpose in society. Given that crime is behaviour that breaks rules it might seem odd to talk about its functions. However, Durkheim developed
the argument that crime is inevitable and must also be necessary and useful for society

Question 7

What is the strain theory?

Answer 7

Merton created the ‘strain theory’ and he started analysis from the functionalist viewpoint that social stability is based on a shared set of values. Merton rejected
individualistic explanations for
criminal behaviour, arguing that it
came from individuals or groups responding in an expected and normal manner to the social situations they found themselves in. He argued that crime results from the gap between the cultural goals of a society and the legitimate means available to achieve those goals. Merton argued that
high rates of deviant behaviour amongst certain groups of people would be due to those people responding normally to their social situation and the pressures they faced at that particular moment

Question 8

Why is the strain theory criticised?

Answer 8

Merton’s theory has been criticised as it does not adequately explain all types of criminal behaviour. It is difficult to point to the material goals that juvenile delinquents, hooligans or rapists could be seen as chasing for example. There is also no real explanation as to why some individuals conform
in specific situations whilst others don’t

Question 9

Explain Albert Cohen and his Subcultural Theories.

Answer 9

Cohen questions whether
criminal and delinquent behaviour is caused by a desire for material
goals. Like Merton, he focuses on working class delinquency but argues that a large amount of this behaviour is expressive in character and doesn’t seek to attain material things. Delinquency centred on
vandalism or violence are two examples of such behaviour that is not concerned with material gain. Cohen argues that society is dominated by middle class values and
these are reinforced through the education system and by the mass media. Working class boys reject the values of school and form groups which emphasise different, essentially delinquent, values - they form what
Cohen defined as a delinquent subculture.

Question 10

Why can Cohen and his subculture theories be rejected?

Answer 10

Cohen’s approach can be criticised along the same line of Merton’s in that it assumes that all working class want to achieve middle class goals and values. Furthermore, the extent to which working class delinquents hold anti-middle class, oppositional values is also debatable.

Question 11

What is another reason Cohen and his subculture theories be rejected?

Answer 11

Such explanations ignore the fact that the majority of young males faced with similar situations do not join delinquent gangs. Subcultural theories focus on young offenders reacting against middle class
society and the norms associated with it; however they make no explanation as to why such young offenders stop offending as they become older, despite class not changing as people age.

Question 12

What do Merton and Cohen have in common?

Answer 12

Both Cohen and Merton see criminal behaviour as resulting from the strains that occur as a result on
basic inequality in society. This implies that equality of opportunity would be desirable and would
have an impact on the extent of criminal behaviour.

Question 13

Why can labelling theories be criticised?

Answer 13

It was criticised for implying that criminals were powerless and passive victims who have just had the misfortune to be labelled criminal. This seemed to ignore the fact that criminals might often choose to become involved in crime. Too great an emphasis is given to the social reaction, thereby minimising the role of the individual. Linked with this, labelling is also criticised as there is little explanation as to why certain people break laws and others do not.

Question 14

What is the link between Marxism and crime?

Answer 14

From a
Marxist perspective crime is largely the product of capitalism, and the relatively high rate of crime in capitalist societies is an indicator of the contradictions that are inherent to such a system.
Thus many forms of crime are to be expected
under such a system. This is due, in part, to the ability of the powerful to criminalise that which threatens their interest

Question 15

What is a Marxist quote regarding crime?

Answer 15

‘crime is a by-product of the political
economy of capitalism’.

Question 16

Why, according to Marxism is crime a class issue?

Answer 16

the Marxist argument is that the law, by largely ignoring white collar crime, gives the impression that criminals are mainly from the working classes and that this serves to direct attention away from ‘ruling-class crime’.

Question 17

What is contemporary evidence of the Marxist ideology of crime?

Answer 17

. The idea that laws and law enforcement routinely target the
subject classes can be exemplified by the 2021 Ministry of Justice figures
that 68% of prisoners in England and Wales were unemployed before
custody compared to 4.3% for the wider population. This unemployment
figure points to the fact that prisoners are more likely to be socially
excluded and is supported by evidence from the 2020 Scottish Index of
Multiple Deprivation that consistently showed that areas in the most
deprived 10% of Scotland have the highest ranking for crime. With the
wealthy under-represented in prisons and the most deprived over represented by a factor of three in Scottish prisons,

Question 18

What evidence do we have that governments take Bowbly’s attachment theory seriously?

Answer 18

Some national governments offer more financial support for young families in terms of maternity and paternity leave. For instance, Sweden offers 480 days parental leave, clearly highlighting its commitment to support children’s early attachment experiences.

Question 19

Why might Bowbly and his conclusions on attachment not be accurate?

Answer 19

It is reliant on recall and interpretation of childhood. Bowlby found a relationship between early separation and delinquency/ affectionless psychopathy but we cannot definitively conclude that the separation was the cause. There may have been a third unidentified variable that accounted for the delinquency/ affectionless psychopathy. For example, the immediate cause of the separation (such as neglect or abuse) might have been the direct cause of problems experienced at adolescence rather than the separation itself.

Question 20

Who coined the term underclass?

Answer 20

Murray utilised the term‘underclass’to refer to individuals who lack employment, income or an education.

Question 21

What are the three kinds of underclass?

Answer 21

An economic (those of working age unable to get steady work)
A moral (those with deviant behavioural norms)
An educational (those lacking in cultural and social skills)

Question 22

What are the findings from the department of educations study into the underclass.

Answer 22

Their impact on crime, public health and antisocial behaviour was so marked that the study found that a single 157,000-strong cohort of 16 to 18-year-old NEETS would cost the country a total of £15 billion by the time they died prematurely in about 2060.
They are, says the study, 22 times more likely to be teenage mothers; 50% more likely to suffer from poor health; 60% more likely to be involved with drugs and more than 20 times more likely to become criminals.

Question 23

Quote Charles Murray

Answer 23

Murray said: “the underclass are defined by their behaviour. Their homes are littered and unkempt. The men in the family are unable to hold down a job. Drunkenness is common. The children grew up ill-schooled and ill-behaved and contribute to a disproportionate share of juvenile delinquents”

Question 24

Quote Durkheim

Answer 24

“crime is present not only in the majority of societies of one particular species but in all societies of all types”

Question 25

“Action is criminal because it shocks” not “an actions shocks because it is criminal” Who said this?

Answer 25

Durkheim

Question 26

How did Becker define deviance?

Answer 26

Becker described deviance as “a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions, is superficially a banal (boring), and even trivial assertion”.

Question 27

Describe Merton’s Self Fulfilling prophecy.

Answer 27

Judged as being bad, and labelled as such, there is an enhanced likelihood that this will become that persons master status.
It will promote behavioural choices – which friends to hang out with, and what form of conduct is reasonable.

Question 28

What evidence is there to support Murray and his criminal underclass?

Answer 28

In the
UK, according to Bromley Briefings data, 13% of the prison population have
never had a job. Similarly, in the US one third of men without any earnings
are either in prison or unemployed ex-prisoners.

Question 29

What evidence does the London School of Economics use to support Marxist theories of crime?

Answer 29

An LSE study found that in London people from the
highest socio-economic class were three times more likely to be let off
with a caution for drug offences compared to people who were
unemployed. Similarly, in France, cannabis prohibition has
disproportionately punished the Black, Muslim population who constitute
less than 10% of France’s population. Data suggests that one in six
prisoners in France are Arab Muslim men convicted of the use, possession
or selling of cannabis. Further evidence of this is also apparent in the US
where research shows prosecutors are twice as likely to pursue a
mandatory minimum sentence for Black people as for White people
charged with the same offence. Marxist explanations of the criminal
justice system would therefore appear to explain the structural reasons
for inequalities in crime with evidence across several capitalist societies
supporting this.

Question 30

Why would people critique Marxist theories of crime?

Answer 30

critics of Marxist theory would counter that it is
deterministic and sees the behaviour of individuals as largely governed by
external forces and therefore fails to consider the rational choices and
free will that individuals exercise when deciding to commit crimes.
Following the Marxist line of thought would also suggest that it is
primarily capitalist societies that experience higher instances of crime
which is patently untrue as can be seen by Switzerland, which with a crime
rate index of 21.8, is amongst the lowest in the world.

Question 31

What are some of the criticisms of the strain theory?

Answer 31

Firstly, not all working class individuals turn to crime, and so we need something
else to explain why some of them do and some of them do not. Secondly,
Merton’s reliance on official statistics means he over-estimates the extent of
working class crime and underestimates the extent of middle class, or white
collar crime which are not reported as frequently. However, It is possible to
apply Merton’s theory of anomie to explain White Collar Crime – white collar
criminals (those who commit fraud at work, for example) might be those who are
committed to achieving material success, but have had their opportunities for
promotion blocked by lack of opportunities – possible through class, gender or
ethnic bias, or possible just by the simple fact that the higher up the career
ladder you go, the more competition for promotion there is. Thirdly, Strain
theory only really explains economic crime, it doesn’t really explain violent crime.
Finally, Marxists point out that lack of equality of opportunity is at the heart of
the Capitalist system. (Elites make the system work for them, which
disadvantages the lower classes).

Question 32

What proof is there of a link between capitalism and crime?

Answer 32

As a result of capitalism, it creates massive inequality and poverty, conditions
which are correlated with higher crime rates. For example, the USA has
greater social inequality and amounts of poverty than Switzerland – the USA
also has a greater rate of murders, sitting at 4.5 murders per 100,000 people
compared to 0.49 in Switzerland. This suggests that capitalism not only explains
white collar crime but also goes someway in explaining violent crime.