sociological theories of crime Flashcards
functionalist, marxist, neo-marxist, interactionism/labelling, right and left realism
what is crime?
any form of action which results in breaking a written formal rule in society
what is deviance?
behaviour which at a specific time and in a specific place is seen as wrong. it may or may not be a crime. it deviates from what is socially acceptable but may not be against the law
what are the 2 types of social control?
formal and informal
what is formal social control?
more serious and includes law
what is informal social control?
not as serious and can be anything from resident groups pressuring other neighbours or expressing disapproval of certain acts e.g., breast-feeding in public
how is crime and deviance socially constructed?
they are defined within a specific cultural time and place
when do definitions of crime and deviance change over time and from place to place?
as values, norms and social expectations change
an example of the socially constructed nature of crime in the UK
smoking in a car with children present wasn’t seen as deviant until recently and has now become criminalised (Children and Families Act 2015)
who distinguished between the 2 types of deviance?
Plummer (1979)
what were the 2 types of deviance Plummer (1979) distinguished between?
situational and societal deviance
what is situational deviance?
acts which can be defined as deviant or normal depending on the circumstance
what is societal deviance?
acts which are seen by most of society as deviant, in most situations
2 examples of situational deviance
- public nudity in most public places
- using profanity e.g., in work or school
2 examples of societal deviance
- acts of violence
- theft
what creates the consensus needed to stabilise society?
social order and social control
what are individuals socialised into?
society’s norms
what functions to reinforce social norms?
sanctions
what are sanctions?
rewards and punishments
how is punishment becoming psychological rather than physical?
people’s behaviour is now regulated through surveillance such as CCTV
FUNCTIONALIST AND SUBCULTURAL THEORIES OF CRIME
5 key writers in the functionalist perspective of crime
- durkheim
- merton
- cohen
- cloward and ohlin
what is durkheim’s key concept?
collective conscience; anomie, egoism
what is merton’s key concept?
strain theory
what is cohen’s key concept?
status frustration
what is cloward and ohlin’s key concept?
criminal subcultures
DURKHEIM
what is collective conscience?
every society shares a set of core values
how did collective conscience form the basis for social order?
a strong collective conscience is supported by a fair legal system which punished offenders
what did Durkheim say about crime being normal?
‘crime is normal… an integral part of all healthy societies’
what are the 2 aspects of crime Durkheim identified that influenced the functioning of society?
positive and negative
3 positive functions of crime identified by Durkheim
- reaffirming the boundaries
- reflecting changing values
- social cohesion
how does crime publicly reaffirm the boundaries?
every time a person breaks the law and is taken to court, the resulting court ceremony, and the publicity in the media
what societies is crime publicly reaffirming the boundaries clear in?
societies in which public punishments take place (e.g., where a murderer is taken out to be executed in public)
what is the purpose of punishment in reaffirming the boundaries?
reaffirm society’s shared rules and reinforce social solidarity
how is the purpose of punishment carried out in reaffirming the boundaries?
by rituals of the courtroom, which dramatise wrongdoing, publicly shame, and stigmatise the offender
what are functional rebels?
individuals or groups who defy laws they believe are wrong
how are functional rebels ahead of their time?
they defy laws that will eventually be seen as outdated
what do functional rebels help to change?
the collective conscience and laws based on it for the better that will help society to function more effectively and fairly
what must functional rebels not be stifled by?
the weight of social control or society won’t be able to make necessary changes
2 examples of functional rebels
- the suffragettes
- civil rights movement in USA
how does crime perform social cohesion?
when horrific crimes have been committed, the entire community comes together in shared outrage and the sense of belonging is strengthened
2 examples of crime performing social cohesion
- James Bulger
- Sarah Everard
2 negative functions of crime identified by Durkheim
- anomie
- egoism
what may happen during a revolution or rapid economic or social change?
the old values and norms may come under challenge without new values or norms being established
what does anomie lead people to disagree on?
what behaviour should be seen as acceptable
when does egoism occur?
when the collective conscience becomes too weak to restrain the selfish desires of individuals
what societies does egoism occur in?
industrial societies where there are many specialist jobs with people having very different roles in society
what happens when individuals aren’t successfully socialised to accept collective values?
they can end up putting their own selfish interest before society as a whole and committing crime
how can negative aspects of crime be countered?
strengthening the collective conscience e.g., through teaching moral values in education
EVALUATION OF DURKHEIM
what has Durkheim’s work been central in? (point) (strength)
the development of sociological thinking on crime
what does Newburn (2013) argue that Durkheim was the first to suggest? (evidence) (strength)
some level of crime is normal in society and crime was linked to the values of particular societies and these values could change
what does Newburn’s (2013) evidence suggest? (explain) (strength)
Durkheim’s theory has been highly influential in improving our understanding of crime and has laid the foundations for other theories of crime to emerge
what do critics argue that Durkheim’s assertion that crime is beneficial goes against? (point) (limitation)
the common-sense notion that crime is harmful
what do left realists Lea and Young (1993) say crime can cause? (evidence) (limitation)
real problems for victims, especially those who are already disadvantaged
what do right realists Wilson and Kelling (1982) stress? (evidence) (limitation)
the harm that crime can do to community cohesion and informal social control
what do left and right realists evidence suggest?
Durkheim’s idea that crime benefits society only offers us a partial view of social reality and is therefore limited
MERTON
what did Merton adapt Durkheim’s concept of?
anomie to explain deviance
what does Merton define deviance as?
a state where the social approved goals were not available to a portion of the population through legitimate means
what does Merton say deviance is the result of?
a strain between the goals a culture encourages individuals to achieve and the means by which society allows them to achieve legitimately
what does Merton see the main goals as?
wealth and power
what does the American Dream claim?
even the poorest had the opportunities to reach the highest levels of society if they had the talent and were willing to do so
what is the reality of the American Dream?
many disadvantaged groups are denied opportunities to achieve legitimately e.g., poverty, discrimination in the job market, may block opportunities for many ethnic minorities and lower classes to achieve
what does the strain between money and the lack of legitimate opportunities to achieve it produce?
frustration
what does this frustration create
a pressure to resort to illegitimate means
what does Merton call a pressure to resort to illegitimate means?
the strain to anomie
what does Merton say could affect the way they adapt or respond to the strain of anomie?
an individual’s position in the social structure in society
what are the 5 responses to strains identified by Merton?
- conformity
- innovation
- ritualism
- retreatism
- rebellion
do conformists accept or reject the culturally approved goals?
accept
do conformists accept or reject the culturally approved means?
accept
how do conformists strive to achieve the goals?
legitimately
what class are most likely to be conformists?
middle-class who have good opportunities to achieve
do innovators accept or reject the culturally approved goals?
accept
do innovators accept or reject the culturally approved means?
reject
how do innovators achieve the means?
through ‘new’ illegitimate means such as theft or fraud
which class are under the greatest pressure to innovate?
those at the lower end of the class structure
do ritualists accept or reject the culturally approved goals?
reject
do ritualists accept or reject the culturally approved means?
accept
what class are most likely to be ritualists?
lower-middle class office workers in dead end, routine jobs
do retreatists accept or reject the culturally approved goals?
reject
do retreatists accept or reject the culturally approved means?
reject
what does Merton say are examples of retreatists?
‘psychotics, outcasts, vagrants, tramps, chronic drunkards and drug addicts’
do rebels accept or reject the culturally approved goals?
both
do rebels accept or reject the culturally approved means?
both
how do rebels both accept and reject the goals and the means?
they replace them with new ones
why do rebels replace the goals and means with new ones?
in desire to bring about revolutionary change and create a new kind of society
what are some examples of rebels?
political radicals and counter cultures such as hippies
one strength of Merton’s strain theory
he shows how both normal and deviant behaviour can arise from the same mainstream goals. for example, both conformists and innovators and pursuing money success: one legitimately, the other illegitimately
one limitation of Merton’s strain theory
he has been criticised for taking official crime statistics at face value. for example, he sees crime as a mainly w/c phenomenon as statistics appear to show they commit the most crime. this suggests that he over-estimates the extent of w/c crime and underestimates the extent of m/c and white-collar crime
SUBCULTURAL THEORIES OF CRIME
COHEN
who’s ideas have subcultural theories developed?
Merton’s
what did Albert Cohen (1955) study?
status frustration and subcultures
what class does Cohen (1955) say deviance is a phenomenon of?
a lower-class phenomenon
what does Cohen (1955) say deviance results from?
the inability to achieve mainstream success goals by legitimate means
why does Cohen (1955) disagree that deviance is an individual response to strain?
he claims that much of deviance is committed in or by groups, especially among the young
what does Cohen (1955) say w/c boys face in the m/c dominated school system?
anomie and cultural deprivation
what does w/c boys inability to succeed leave them at the bottom of?
the official status hierarchy
what do w/c boys suffer as a result of not being able to achieve status by legitimate means?
status frustration
how do w/c boys resolve the problem of adjustment to their low status?
rejecting mainstream m/c values, turning to other boys in the same situation and forming or joining a delinquent subculture
what values do delinquent subcultures have?
spite, malice, hostility and contempt for those outside it
what do delinquent subcultures invert the values of?
mainstream society
an example of delinquent subcultures inverting the values of mainstream society
society upholds regular school attendance, whereas in the delinquent subculture boys gain status from truanting
what are delinquent subculture’s function?
it offers an alternative status hierarchy where boys can achieve and win status through delinquent actions
one strength of Cohen’s status frustration
it explains non-utilitarian deviance. for example, his ideas of status frustration, value inversion and alternative status hierarchy explain non-economic delinquency such as vandalism and truancy. this suggests that subcultural theory offers a more detailed and complete explanation of crime and deviance in society
one limitation of Cohen’s status frustration
he assumes that w/c boys start off sharing m/c success goals, only to reject these when they fail. for example, Miller (1962) suggests that opposition to mainstream values was more widespread in the w/c because w/c culture has its own subculture separate from mainstream culture which doesn’t value success, so its members aren’t frustrated by failure. this suggests that his theory is limited as it only offers a partial view.
what was Miller’s (1958) theory
Focal Concern Theory
what does Focal Concern Theory attempt to explain?
the behaviour of ‘members of adolescent street corner groups in lower class communities
how does Focal Concern Theory explain the behaviour of ‘members of adolescent street corner groups in lower class communities?
seeking excitement might lead to non-utilitarian crimes
what are some of Miller’s Focal Concerns?
excitement, toughness, smartness, trouble
one limitation of Millers’ Focal Concern Theory
feminist critics have pointed out that these focal concerns might be masculine values rather than feminine values
what did Cloward and Ohlin (1960) study?
illegitimate opportunity structures
how do Cloward and Ohlin (1960) criticise Merton?
they agree that w/c youths are denied legitimate opportunities to achieve ‘money success’ buy say that not everyone adapts by turning to ‘innovation’
what do Cloward and Ohlin (1960) say there is unequal access to?
both legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structures
what do Cloward and Ohlin (1960) say different neighbourhoods provide illegitimate opportunities for young people to learn?
criminal skills and develop criminal carreers
what are the 3 subcultures identified by Cloward and Ohlin (1960)?
- criminal subcultures
- conflict subcultures
- retreatist subcultures
what do criminal subcultures provide youths with?
an apprenticeship for a career in utilitarian crime, where young offenders can ‘work their way up the ladder’ in the criminal hierarchy
why are young people attracted to criminal subcultures?
because they could see examples of people from the same background as them who had become successful career criminals enjoying all the trappings of success
when are people recruited into criminal subcultures?
when they’re young by the organisations
when are youths given opportunities to take their criminal careers further in criminal subcultures?
if they prove to be dedicated and resourceful
what is the most organised type of subculture?
criminal subcultures
2 examples of criminal subcultures
- the Mafia
- the Kray twins
what do conflict subcultures engage in?
violence against one another
what do conflict subcultures view violence as a means of?
achieving ‘respect’ or status for young people
what is the respect given by violence a substitute for?
qualifications or a well-paid job, either in mainstream employment or in criminal organisations
where do retreastist subcultures occur?
where individuals have no opportunity or ability to engage in legitimate or illegitimate opportunity structures
what is having no opportunity or ability to engage in legitimate or illegitimate opportunity structures called?
‘double-failures’
what is the result of being ‘double-failures’?
retreat into alcohol or drugs, spending time with others who have dropped out of society in a similar way
1 strength of Cloward and Ohlin (1960)
it recognises different types of youth subculture. for example, unlike Cohen, they provide an explanation for different types of w/c deviance. this suggests that Cloward and Ohlin (1960) offer a more comprehensive view of crime and deviance in society
2 limitations of Cloward and Ohlin (1960)
- critics accuse them of being reactive theories. for example, they explain subcultures as forming in reaction to the failure to achieve mainstream goals and assume everyone starts off sharing the same mainstream goals. this suggests they are reductionist and ignore other important factors
- Marxists criticise this approach for ignoring the crimes of the wealthy. for example, like Merton and Cohen, they see crime as a mainly w/c phenomenon and over-predict the amount of w/c crime. this suggests that Cloward and Ohlin (1960) ignore the wider power structure, including who makes and enforces the law
one limitation of subcultural theories
Katz (1988) claims that crime is seductive and young males get drawn into it because it is thrilling
INTERACTIONIST THEORIES
5 key writers in the interactionist perspective of crime
- Becker
- Lemert
- Cohen
- Young
- Cicourel
5 key concepts in the interactionist perspective of crime
- social construct
- primary and secondary deviance
- folk devil
- deviant career
- typifications
what does the labelling theory of crime look at?
how and why some people and actions come to be labelled as criminal or deviant, and what effects this has on those who are labelled
what do labelling theorists see official crime statistics as?
social constructs
what does Howard Becker (1963) study?
labelling
what does Becker (1963) argue?
most people commit deviant acts but only some are caught and stigmatised for it
what does Becker (1963) say follows if a person is successfully labelled?
consequences
what does Becker (1963) define a deviant as?
one whom the label has been successfully applied
what does Becker (1963) define deviant behaviour as?
behaviour that people label
why does Becker (1963) see deviance as a relative concept?
it only exists because those with power in society have decided that something is deviant
what does Becker (1963) see rules as?
‘the product of someone’s initiative, and we can think of the people who exhibit such enterprises as moral entrepreneurs’
what does Becker (1963) see laws as a reflection of?
moral entrepreneurs activities , which either benefit them directly, or they believe that the laws are truly for the benefit of society
what are some examples of moral entrepeneurs?
newspaper editors, MPs, religious leaders or those who start a campaign
what is a ‘moral crusade’?
moral entrepreneurs activities and movements to pass laws
what is an example of a moral crusade?
the outlawing of cannabis in the USA in 1937
what does Becker (1963) claim the 2 effects of new laws are?
- the creation of a new group of ‘outsiders’, outlaws or deviants who break the new rule
- the creation or expansion of a social control agency. for example, the police, courts
what are 4 factors that matter in whether or not the label ‘deviant’ applies to an act?
- who commits the act
- when they commit the act
- where it is committed
- who sees it
what are 3 factors that matter in whether an individual gets punished for an act?
- their interactions with agencies of social control
- their appearance, background and personal biography
- the situations and circumstances of the offence
1 strength of Becker’s labelling theory
Plott claims the term ‘juvenile delinquency’ was originally created as a result of a campaign by upper-class Victorian moral entrepreneurs, aimed at protecting young people at risk. this established ‘juveniles’ as a separate category of offender with their own courts and enabled the stat to extend its powers beyond criminal offences
what did Edwin Lemert (1972) study?
the effects of labelling
what 2 types of deviance did Lemert (1972) identify?
- primary deviance
- secondary deviance
what is primary deviance?
deviant acts before the person is publically labelled. it is often trivial and mostly goes uncaught
what is secondary deviance?
deviance that follows after publically labelling. it is the consequence of the response to others
why can offenders easily rationalise acts of primary deviance away?
acts of primary deviance are not part of an organised deviant way of life
what may happen once an individual is labelled?
it becomes a master status
what is a master status?
when others come to see them only in terms of the label
what can a master status provoke?
a crisis for the individual’s self-concept or sense of identity
how do individuals resolve the crisis for the individual’s self-concept or sense of identity?
they accept the deviant label and see themselves as the world sees them
what may accepting the deviant label lead to?
a self-fulfilling prophecy
what is a self-fulfilling prophecy?
when the individual acts out or lives up to their deviant label
what is a deviant career?
when a person is given or accepts the master label leading to further crime
what did Stanley Cohen (1972) study?
deviance amplification
what does Cohen (1972) say makes deviance worse?
labelling
why does Cohen (1972) claim labelling makes deviance worse?
when whole groups are demonised they may be demonised by the media as ‘folk devils’ which causes a moral panic
what is a folk devil?
a scapegoat for things going wrong in society
what is a moral panic?
a fear of a moral crisis in society. the mass media have a big part in starting moral panics
who are labels applied by and what does this result in?
the authorities which results in more deviance
what study does Cohen (1972) use to illustrate moral panics?
‘Mods’ and ‘Rockers’
who were the ‘Mods’ and ‘Rockers’?
two 1960s youth cultures, who sometimes clashed when they met up on bank holidays at seaside resorts
what does Cohen say the publicity caused?
greater deviance over time/deviance amplification
what is deviance amplification?
when levels of deviance are exaggerated or over-reported by the media, and authorities respond by social control which promotes further deviance
what can this type of labelling produce?
a self-fulfilling prophecy or the formation of subcultures
why may being rejected by wider society cause a self-fulfilling prophecy or the formation of subcultures?
individuals may act up to negative labels or turn to others who are also seen as deviant or criminal for status or a sense of identity
why did Cohen find the labelling of motorbike and scooter riders as dangerous?
it led them to forge stronger links with others who had been given the same label and to see themselves as members of these 2 groups
who are Cohen’s ideas similar to?
Lemert’s
how are Cohen and Lemert’s ideas similar?
they both believe society’s reaction to deviance leads to further deviance
what is the dark figure of crime?
unlabelled, unrecorded crime that’s ignored by the public and police
what does the focus on folk devils by the CJS draw resources away from?
the dark figure of crime
what did Jock Young (1971) study?
‘hippy’ marijuana smokers in Notting Hill
what does Young’s evidence support the idea of?
that labelling could lead to deviance amplification and the formation of subcultures
what did Young find at the start of his study?
smoking marijuana was an occasional leisure pursuit, but wasn’t central to people’s lives
why did police begin arresting and charging a number of those who smoked marijuana?
due to mounting public and political pressure which led to a clamp down by police
how did this clamp down by police lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy?
increasing importance was attached to use i.e. users no longer trusted non-users to keep their drug a secret so users increasingly mixed with other users more than non-users
what did this segregation between users and non-users lead to?
the emergence of a distinctive subculture based around drug use. their deviance was amplified in response to the police making more arrests and prosecutions. they had accepted their master status and deviant career
what did Aaron Cicourel (1976) study?
police ‘typifications’
what does Cicourel (1976) argue police officers hold stereotyped images of?
the ‘typical delinquent’ i.e. those from a single-parent family, have poor attitudes towards a authority, a low income, being from a minority ethnic group
what do police typifications guide?
their decision making
why are those who are seen as delinquents typically from a w/c background?
they fit the typifications of a delinquent and m/c parents are better than w/c parents at helping their children to negotiate their way out of trouble (cultural capital)
what does Cicourel’s (1976) study have implication for?
the use of official crime statistics in sociological research as they don’t provide a valid picture of patterns of crime
one strength of labelling theories
it highlights the fact that law is a social construction. for example, it shows that the law is often enforced in discriminatory ways and crime statistics are more a record of the activities of control agencies. this suggests we should be cautious when using official crime statistics as a basis for explanation as they lack validity and may be a product of bias in the CJS
one limitation of labelling theories
structural approaches criticise labelling theory for ignoring the importance of wider structural factors in causing crime. for example, Marxists claim they ignore class inequalities and the materialistic nature of capitalist society which push some people to commit crime. this suggests that labelling theories offer a limited view of social reality in contemporary society today
MARXIST AND CRITICAL THEORIES OF CRIME
6 key writers in the Marxist perspective of crime
- Snider
- Reiman
- Chambliss
- Taylor
- Walton
- Young
3 key concepts in the Marxist perspective of crime
- ruling class ideology
- criminogenic
- fully social theory of deviance
what do Marxists emphasise the importance of understanding?
the role of class inequality in understanding crime
why do Marxists agree with labelling theorists?
the law and law enforcement is socially constructed
CRIMINAL LAW OPERATES TO PROTECT THE RICH AND POWERFUL
what do Marxists say all laws are for the benefit of?
the ruling class and criminal law reflects their interests
what does Snider claim happens to laws that threaten the interests of large corporations in capitalist societies?
they are rarely passed
what does Snider claim the state often spends large sums of money trying to attract?
inward investment from corporations e.g., cheap loans
what are governments reluctant to enforce due to the state spending large sums of money trying to attract inward investment from corporations?
laws that regulate pollution, workers’ pay, workers’ health or minimum wages
what is a recent example of this?
the official response to the banking crisis of 2008
why does Sayer say the rich largely shape the law?
so they’re unlikely to end up in prison
how do the rich ensure they’re unlikely to end up in prison?
they ensure that governments don’t close down loopholes that allow the rich and big companies to avoid tax
what are laws against ‘benefit scroungers’ like?
strict and punitive
how much more does tax avoidance cost the government compared to benefit fraud?
20x as much
what kind of belief system do Marxists say exists?
a dominant pro-capitalist belief system
how do Marxists say a dominant pro-capitalist belief system is maintained?
through several ideological agencies including criminal justice
what does the constant emphasis on ‘benefit scroungers’ distract attention away from?
law-breaking by the rich and produces a distorted view of social reality
what are the public encouraged to believe about laws about welfare payments?
they’re over-generous and poorly enforced so it is easy to scrounge illegally off the state
LAW ENFORCEMENT IS BIASED IN FAVOUR OF THE RULING CLASS
an example of law enforcement being biased in favour of the ruling class
tax evaders are more likely to be given a warning or asked to repay the tax than be prosecuted, whereas benefit fraud is likely to result in prosecution and sometimes prison
who argues that crimes committed by corporations do more economic and physical harm that street crime?
Snider
what are companies more likely to get for financial frauds rather than prosecutions?
fines and having to repay money to customers
what can corporate crimes cause to the victims?
death, injury, financial loss
the treatment of what type of criminals is further evidence of class bias in the CJS?
white-collar criminals
why are white-collar crimes often not prosecuted?
many are hard to detect
why are white-collar crimes hard to prosecute?
due to the complexity of some offences
why are bribery and corruption less likely to be reported?
they benefit both parties involved
why may victims not detect white-collar crimes?
they may be unaware they have been victims or may lack the resources to bring cases to court
4 crimes of the powerful
- financial crimes
- crimes against consumers
- crimes against employees
- crimes against the environment
what are financial crimes?
tax evasion, bribery, money laundering, and illegal accounting
who are victims of financial crimes?
other companies, shareholders, taxpayers and governments
what are crimes against consumers?
false labelling and selling unfit goods, including ‘food crime’
what are crimes against employees?
sexual and racial discrimination, violations of wage laws, of rights to join a union or take industrial action, and of health and safety laws
what are crimes against the environment?
illegal pollution of air, water and land (toxic waste dumping)
what does Carrabine et al state we trust those in high-status professions with?
our finances, health, security and personal information
what does high-status professionals position and power give them the opportunity to do?
abuse this trust
why may accountants and lawyers be employed by criminal organisations?
to launder criminal funds into legitimate businesses
how can accountants and lawyers act corruptly?
by inflating fees, committing forgery, illegally diverting clients’ money
what other professionals may be involved in criminal activity?
health professionals
who is an example of a health professional involved in criminal activity?
Harold Shipman
5 reasons why crimes of the powerful are invisible or not seen as real crimes
- the media
- lack of political will
- complexity
- de-labelling
- under-reporting
why does the media mean that crimes of the powerful are invisible or not seen as real crimes?
there is limited coverage of corporate crime which reinforces the stereotype that crime is a w/c phenomenon. corporate crime is described using sanitised language e.g., mis-selling’ or ‘accidents’
why does lack of political will mean that crimes of the powerful are invisible or not seen as real crimes?
politicians’ rhetoric of being ‘tough on crime’ is focused on street crime
why does complexity mean that crimes of the powerful are invisible or not seen as real crimes?
these crimes are often complex and law enforcers are often understaffed, under-resourced and lacking technical expertise to investigate effectively
why does de-labelling mean that crimes of the powerful are invisible or not seen as real crimes?
corporate crime is filtered out from the process of criminalisation (defined as civil not criminal) and in criminal cases, penalties are often fines rather than jail
why does under-reporting mean that crimes of the powerful are invisible or not seen as real crimes?
often the victim is society, or the environment, rather than an individual. individuals may be unaware that they have been a victim and when they’re aware, they may not regard it as ‘real crime’ they may also feel powerless against a big organisation and may never report the offence to the authorities
