Sociocultural approach (new, fill in with time) Flashcards
What is social identity theory?
Social identity theory is a key theory in the sociocultural approach. The theory argues that we divide the world into “in-groups” and “out-groups” through social categorization. We decide which groups we identify with based on common traits and/or goals. When we join a group, we go through a process of social identification. This is when we conform to the norms of that group and adopt their behaviours. Once we have categorised ourselves as part of a group and have identified with that group we then compare our group to other groups. If our self-esteem is to be maintained our group needs to compare favourably with other groups - what Tajfel called “positive distinctiveness.” SIT argues that our social identities play a key role in our behaviour and cognition.
Studies
Hillard and Liben
Formation of stereotypes + theory
DEFINITION OF STEREOTYPES
A stereotype is defined as a social perception of an individual in terms of their group membership or physical attributes. It is a generalization that is made about a group and then attributed to members of that group. Such a generalization may be either positive or negative.
THE EXPLANATION/THEORY: SIT
One theory, among others, that can explain stereotyping is SIT.
Social identity theory argues that our identity and behavior are influenced by the groups we belong to. We choose groups we belong to (called in-groups) based on traits that we think are similar to our own and stereotypes are formed based on this natural process of social categorization.. SIT argues that we divide the world into in-groups and out-groups. We identify with our group and begin to conform to the norms of our group. This is called social identification. We also compare our in-group to the out-group. This is called social comparison. We tend to see our in-group as superior, which means that we engage in something called downward comparison. We also see the out-group as all sharing common traits. This is called out-group homogeneity and this is the basis for stereotyping. Often these traits are negative. This is a way of justifying that our in-group is better than the out-group and raises our self-esteem
Studies
Hillard and Liben
Effects of stereotypes + theory
DEFINITION OF STEREOTYPES
A stereotype is defined as a social perception of an individual in terms of their group membership or physical attributes. It is a generalization that is made about a group and then attributed to members of that group. Such a generalization may be either positive or negative. One effect of stereotypes is distortion of memory. Memories can be distorted based on schemas (mental representations stored in long-term memory, formed as a result of experience). THere are different types of schemas. One type of schema is a so called social schema or stereotype (a schema of a group).
THE EXPLANATION/THEORY: SIT
One theory, among others, that can explain stereotyping is SIT.
Social identity theory argues that our identity and behavior are influenced by the groups we belong to. We choose groups we belong to (called in-groups) based on traits that we think are similar to our own and stereotypes are formed based on this natural process of social categorization.. SIT argues that we divide the world into in-groups and out-groups. We identify with our group and begin to conform to the norms of our group. This is called social identification. We also compare our in-group to the out-group. This is called social comparison. We tend to see our in-group as superior, which means that we engage in something called downward comparison. We also see the out-group as all sharing common traits. This is called out-group homogeneity and this is the basis for stereotyping. Often these traits are negative. This is a way of justifying that our in-group is better than the out-group and raises our self-esteem
Studies
Allport and Postman
Hillard and Liben
One study that investigated the role of SIT in the development of stereotypes was Hilliard and Liben. The study took place at two preschools with a total of 57 US children. Both preschools had a policy to avoid gendered language. Each child completed a gender attitude test to measure their “gender flexibility.” They were shown pictures of activities or occupations, and for each item asked if boys, girls, or both boys and girls ‘‘should’’ perform it. There was no significant difference between the average gender flexibility in the two preschools. The schools were then randomly allocated to one of two conditions. In the high salience conditions, the children were made aware of their gender by having them line up by sex, posting separate boys’ and girls’ bulletin boards, and the teachers’ use of gender-specific language. In the low salience condition, there was no change in the school’s daily practice. After two weeks, the children again were tested for gender flexibility. The children in the high salience condition showed a significant increase in gender stereotypes. In addition, in the high-salience group, the amount of time spent playing with the “out-group” changed over a period of two weeks.
Allport and Postman
In a classic experiment done in 1947, Allport & Postman wanted to see the effect of stereotyping on recall. The researchers showed a participant a drawing of a white man holding a razor and threatening a black man on the subway. The participant was then asked to describe what he had seen to another participant – a process called serial reproduction, one of the same strategies used by Bartlett in his classic War of the Ghosts study. The process was repeated for up to seven participants. The researchers found that in over half of the experiments, at some stage the story was retold so that the black man was threatening the white man. It appears that stereotypes of blacks as being more violent affected the retelling of the story.
Ethical considerations in the individual and the group
Hilliard and Liben
Informed consent in Hilliard and LIben
One consideration is that children cannot give consent, so parental consent is obtained, which is allowed. The parents would have been informed about all aspects of the study as well as their rights. They should have been informed about their children being exposed to creating stereotypes and that this may have a long-term effect, but also that they will have a thorough debriefing session to counteract this effect, with both teachers and the researchers.
Undue harm
The experience/study could have long-term effects on the children in the experimental condition. Both schools had a gender neutral policy, which may mean that the goal is to raise children without gender role stereotypes, trying to induce them is not ethical and seems to be counterproductive. However, that study only lasted for two weeks and there was a thorough debriefing session to try to counteract the effect after the study.
Right to withdraw
The parents would have been informed that they could withdraw their child from the study. However, since this is a naturalistic study, conducted in the children’s natural environment, this would have been difficult. Also, the parents were not present during the study which means that they could not know if the children were uncomfortable. The children were too small to understand that they were in a study and to be able to communicate this to their parents.
What is social cognitive theory?
SCT argues that humans are able to learn through observation. For this to take place, several cognitive factors are necessary. First, learners must be attentive to a model. Attention can be influenced by the authority, desirability, and attractiveness of the model. Second, the learner must be able to retain what he observes. Additionally, learners must be motivated enough to replicate the behavior. The motivation is the result of the awards that the model receives - what Bandura called vicarious reinforcement. Finally, they must be able to comprehend the result of the behavior and be able to identify with the model. It is not enough that they identify with the model, they must also feel that they are able to carry out the behavior - what is known as self-efficacy. SCT was developed by Albert Bandura whose research on aggression gave some of the first empirical evidence supporting the notion that humans could learn through observation
Bandura
Bandura carried out a lab experiment to see if children would imitate aggression modeled by adults. The first independent variable used was the standardized behavior of the model/the adult (aggressive, passive or no model present). The second and third independent variables were the sex of the child and the sex of the model.. The dependent variable was the frequency of aggression actions, both verbal and physical, observed by the researchers. Thirty-six boys and thirty-six girls, aged between three and six years participated in the study. The groups were matched for aggression. Children were either placed in a control group that did not see a model, played alongside a passive model, or witnessed an aggressive model. Children were allocated to either a female or male model. In the passive condition, the model played with blocks. In the aggressive condition, the model was verbally and physically aggressive to the Bobo doll. All children were then exposed to ‘mild aggression arousal’ by being taken to a room with toys; once they began to play they were told that the toys were for other children. The researchers then observed the children’s responses and looked for acts of aggression toward the Bobo doll. The researchers found that children in the passive model condition showed fewer aggressive behaviors than those in the aggressive-model conditions and in the control condition (alone). Second, boys made more aggressive acts than girls. Third, boys made more physical acts of aggression whereas girls made the most verbal acts. Finally, both boys and girls who had a male model made more aggressive acts than children that observed a female one.
Research methods in the group and the individual
In true experiments one or more independent variables are manipulated (changed) by the researcher. (In Bandura’s study there were two IVs manipulated: behavior of adult (aggressive, non-aggressive) and the gender of the adult model (male of female); In Hilliard and Liben the IV was the salience of gender role stereotypes, operationalized as how the teachers talked to the children, using gendered language or not). The effect of the IV on one or more dependent variables (DV) is measured. (The DV in Bandura’s study is the aggression level of the child when measured alone later in a room, operationalized as acts of physical and verbal aggression; In Hilliard and Liben there are two DVs; One was gender flexibiilty or gender role stereotyping measured using a test on whether children consider that the roles of the two genders are different. The other DV was to what extent a child played with the opposite sex. The researcher tries to control other variables that can influence the DV in order to isolate the effect of the IV on the DV (to establish cause and effect). These variables are called extraneous variables or confounding variables. (One extraneous variable controlled in Bandura’s study was a participant variable; prior aggression of the child. This was measured using data triangulation, which increases the credibility of the study. They observed the children prior to the study and also asked teachers. Then they used a matched pairs design to make sure that the aggression levels in each condition was similar. In Hilliard and Liben it is more difficult to control extraneous variables since the participants were in their natural environment (school). They could not control the behaviors they were exposed to at home and the behavior of the teachers during the two weeks was not standardized. Participants are randomly assigned/allocated to conditions.(In Banduras study the 72 children were randomly allocated to 10 conditions (male aggressive model, female aggressive model, male non-aggressive model, female non-aggressive model, no model. Each one of these had a boy or a girl as participant, which is 10. There were only 6 children in each. In Hillliard and Liben’s study the children were not randomly allocated to high or low salience condition. the two schools were.) Researchers also try to standardize the procedure so the experiment can be easily replicated to check for reliability of the results. (In lab experiments like Bandura’s there is high standardization (same room, same toys, Bobo, the models were instructed to behave a certain way and say certain phrases and words. However, the behavior of the models was not fully standardized. In Hilliard and Liben’s study, it is more difficult to standardize since the teachers and children are in a pre-school. Even though the teachers were told how to use gendered language in the high salience condition, everything else was just natural behavior and even those sentences were not standardized.)
Cultural dimensions
Cultural dimensions are the differences in values or beliefs between cultures. These are reflective of a society’s culture, showing what it is they view as the most important. One such cultural dimension is a culture’s tendency towards individualism vs collectivism. Collectivistic cultures are focused more on group success and interdependence within a community. There is less need for privacy and less importance is placed on individual freedom. This is in contrast to individualistic cultures which focus on personal success, freedom, independence, and privacy. The theory of cultural dimensions is that these cultural values impact behavior.
Studies
Kulkofsky
Kulkofsky
One study showing the impact of cultural dimensions on memory was done by Kulkoffsky et al in their study of flashbulb memory. The researchers wanted to see if there was a difference between flashbulb memories in collectivistic and individualistic cultures. To carry out the study, Kulkoffsky gave a flashbulb memory questionnaire, based on the original questionnaire used by Brown & Kulik, to people from individualistic cultures like the US and collectivistic cultures like China. The participants were asked to recall a public event that took place in their lifetime - like 9-11 or the death of a famous person. The researchers found that there were fewer examples of flashbulb memories in collectivistic cultures for such events.
Enculturation
Enculturation is the process of adopting or internalizing the schemas of your own culture, through the daily interactions and by feedback from other members of the culture. This process is also known as socialization; it takes place more or less unconsciously. The cultural schemas that have been internalized influence cognition, emotions and behavior, for example how we learn gender roles, gender role development
Studies
Fagot
Fagot
One study into enculturation is Fagot (1978). This study looked at how parents directly influence gender identity, which although dependent on biological sex, is shaped by cultural norms. The aim of this study was to observe parental reactions to behavior that wasn’t deemed appropriate for the child’s gender, at least according to American culture at the time. Fagot carried out naturalistic observations among 24 families, 12 families with boys and 12 with girls. They found that parents acted more favorably towards their children when they acted according to their gender norms and expectations. Boys were encouraged to play with toys that build strength while girls were encouraged to play with dolls or dress up.
Acculturation
When moving to another culture, individuals make choices, both consciously and unconsciously, to what extent they will maintain their own culture versus adopting the culture of their new home country. Berry argued that there are different acculturation strategies. One is assimilation – when a person adopts the cultural behaviors and values of the new culture. If they do this while maintaining their original culture as well, this is called integration. If a person fails to integrate into their new culture and maintains their own culture, this is a form of isolation in society. If the person fails to integrate into the new culture and also loses contact with their home culture, they can experience what Berry called marginalization.
Psychologists recognize that the process of acculturation can be stressful for people. This is referred to as acculturative stress - the psychological, physiological, and social difficulties of acculturation, often resulting in anxiety or depression. The result is a decrease in one’s mental health. This is often experienced by immigrants when they move to a new country and try to balance the culture in which they were enculturated and the new culture into which they are trying to acculturate.
Studies
Lueck and Wilson
Lueck and Wilson
Lueck and Wilson carried out a set of semi-structured interviews to study the factors that increased acculturative stress in a large sample of Asian immigrants and Asian Americans. The interviews were conducted either online or face-to-face. The interviews measured the level of acculturative stress, language proficiency, strength of family ties, and socioeconomic status.
70% of the sample said that they experienced acculturative stress. The researchers found that being bilingual resulted in lower acculturative stress. Higher levels of stress were found in Asians who did not know their native language well enough to discuss important issues with family members or members of the community. Although bilingualism is a predictor of low acculturative stress, the preference for speaking English only is a predictor of high acculturative stress.
This study shows that Asian immigrants who had assimilated experienced higher levels of stress. They had adopted the language of the majority culture and “lost” their ability to communicate in their mother tongue. Those that had integrated experienced less stress. Asians who are able to use both languages equally with their friends are able to build up networks of support within and outside their community. This is an important protective factor against stress. This study indicates that assimilation may be a less healthy approach to acculturation than integration.
