Biological approach

Question 1

What is one technique used to study brain and behaviour

Answer 1

MRI
Magnetic resonance imaging is a modern non invasive technique used to study the brain. It uses radio waves and a strong magnetic field to align, and map the activity of hydrogen atoms in the brain. This produce either a static 2d or 3d picture of the brain. These pictures are then analysed by VBM (voxel based morphometry) and pixel-counting.

Studies
Maguire & Draganski

Question 2

What is localisation of function?

Answer 2

Localisation of functionis theory. It states that one part of the brain is connected to a certain behaviour. And if a part of the brain was damaged, the behaviour connected to that part could no longer be performed. Often different parts of the brain work together, which is called distributive processing. For example memory is transferred from STM to LTM by the hippocampus, but is then stored in other parts of the brain. The brain is also able to transfer a function from a damaged part of the brain to a non damaged part of the brain, this is called equipotentiality.

Studies
Maguire & HM

Question 3

What is neuroplasticity?

Answer 3

Neuroplasticity means that the brain changes in response to the environment since it is a dynamic organ. New experinces lead to neurons being stimulated. Repeated stimulation of a neuron results in repeated use of the new synapse, which is called long-term potentation. After repeated stimuli the neuron will sprite new dendrites (dendritic branching) which will form new neural networks. If the new neural connections are not used, they are pruned, meaning that they dissapear.

Studies
Maguire & Drakanski

Question 4

Formation of new neural networks

SAQ only

Answer 4

If a neuron is repeatedly stimulated it will sprite new dendrites which will connect to other neurons to form new neural connections.

Study
Draganski (or Maguire)

Question 5

Pruning

SAQ only

Answer 5

If a new neural connection is not used it will prune. This means that the connection will dissapear.

Study
Draganski (or Maguire)

Question 6

What is a neurotransmitter

Answer 6

A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance which affects behaviour. Neurotransmitters are released into the synapse from the pre-synaptic neuron. They will then bind to receptors on the post-synaptic neuron. If the neurotransmitter is excitatory it will increase the likely hood of the neuron firing an action potential. If the neurotransmitter is inhibitory it will instead decrease the likely hood of the neuron finding an action potential.

Studies
Antonova & Rogers and Kestner

Question 7

Acetylcholine

Answer 7

Acetylcholine is an excitatory agonist neurotransmitter. It plays a role in the encoding of spatial memories.

Studies
Antonova & Rogers and Kestner

Question 8

Scopolamine

Answer 8

Scopolamine is an antagonist neurotransmitter that works against acteylcholine. An antagonist neurotransmitter binds to the receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron, and prevents the neurotransmitter from doing its job.

Studies
Antonova & Rogers and Kestner

Question 9

Experiments

Brain and behaviour

Answer 9

True experiments
The researcher manipulates the IV and measures its effects on the DV. While controling extraneous variables. Random allocation to conditions. Cause and effect can be established.
Studies
Antonova, Draganski & Rogers and Kestner

Quasi experiment
The researcher uses already existing groups as the IV (cannot be manipulated) and there is no random allocation of participants.
Studies
Maguire

Question 10

Case studies

Brain and behaviour

Answer 10

In-depth investigation of a person/ group/ organisation/ case using method triangulation (more than one research to collect data)

Studies
HM

Question 11

What are hormones?

Answer 11

Hormones are chemicals that affect behaviour. They are produced by glands in the endocrine system. They are released directly into the blood, which results in them taking a long time to produce a change in behaviour, but they also have a long lasting effect on behaviour.

Studies
Newcomer & Ackerman

Question 12

Cortisol

Answer 12

Cortisol is a hormone which is produced by the adrenal glands. Cortisol increases glucose levels in the blood, aswell as metabolism of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. It plays a vital role in the fight or flight response. Low levels of cortisol can improve memeory while high levels of cortisol can impair it.

Studies
Newcomer & Ackerman

Question 13

What are pheromones?

Answer 13

Pheromones are chemical substances that are released into the environment by animals. This affects the behaviour and physiology of other animals by the same species. Pheromones play a significant role in different behaviours, such as mating, in animals, but it is not clear if the same can be said about humans. There are some evidence for human pheromones affecting behaviour, but nothing is conclusive since no human pheromone has been found

Studies
Wedekind & Zhou

Question 14

Experiments

Hormones and pheromones

Answer 14

True experiments
The researcher manipulates the IV and measures its effects on the DV. While controling extraneous variables. Random allocation to conditions. Cause and effect can be established.
Studies
Newcomer & Zhou

Quasi experiment
The researcher uses already existing groups as the IV (cannot be manipulated) and there is no random allocation of participants.
Studies
Wedekind

Question 15

Correlation

Hormones and pheromones

Answer 15

Measure two variables to see the strength and direction of the relationship between them.

Studies
Ackerman

Question 16

What is the role of one gene on behaviour?

Answer 16

Modern research in genetics focuses on genetic mapping. It uses DNA markers to try and identify the gene or genes that are involved in depression. There are many genetic markers - or variations - that seem to be correlated with Major Depressive Disorder. One of them is the 5 HTT gene that plays a role in the serotonin pathways and plays a role in mood, emotions, aggression, sleep, and anxiety.

Studies
Caspi & Risch

Question 17

5HTT gene

Answer 17

The 5HTT gene plays a role in the serotonin pathways and plays a role in mood, emotions, aggression, sleep, and anxiety. And seems to have a connection to Major depresive disorder. However just having the gene does not cause depression, the environment also plays a significant role.

Studies
Caspi & Risch

Question 18

Genetic inheritance

Answer 18

Genetic inheritance is investigated using different methods such as, twin studies and kinship/family studies.

Studies
Caspi, Kendler & Weissman

Question 19

Genetic similarities

Answer 19

Researcher study individuals with similar genetic make-up to see to what extent a gene affects behaviour. In twin studies this would be to see if the concordance rate is high. If a large part of a family have similair behaviour, it should have a genetic component

Studies
Kendler & Weissman

Question 20

What is one evolutionary explanation of behavoiur?

Answer 20

Parental investment theory suggests that those who invest more in producing a healthy offspring will be more picky when choosing a mate. Females invest more in creating offspring; fewer eggs than sperm, pregnant for 9 months, health risks during pregnancy, need to nourish the child after giving birth. They are therefore more picky than males when coosing a mate. Males compete for the quantity of females, while females compete for the quality of males.

Studies
Clark and Hattfield & Wedekind

Question 21

Experiments

Genes and evolution

Answer 21

Field experiments
True experiments that manipulate an IV, randomly allocated Ps to conditions and show cause and effect.Conducted in the Ps natural environment.
Studies
Clark and Hattfield

Natural experiments
Not true experiments since they don’t manipulate an IV but it occurs naturally so the Ps cannot be randomly allocated to conditions.
Studies
Caspi

Quasi experiments
The researcher uses already existing groups as the IV (cannot be manipulated) and there is no random allocation of participants.
Studies
Wedekind

Question 22

Correlations

Answer 22

Measure two variables to see the strength and direction (positive or negative) of the relationship between them.

Studies
Kendler

Question 23

Maguire

Answer 23

A quasi experiment which aimed to investigate if the brain of London taxi drivers are different from none taxi drivers. MRI scans of both taxi drivers and non taxi drivers were analyzed using VBM and pixel counting. It was done single blind, so the researcher did not know if the scan was from a taxi driver or nor. The results showed that the taxi drivers had a larger posterior hippocampi and smaller anterior hippocampi than the non taxi drivers. The posterior hippocampi was bigger in those who had been taxi drivers for longer was bigger. Since there was a difference in the hippocampus it is likely that the posterior is involved when using previously known spatial memories. While the anterior is used when encoding new spatial memories.

Question 24

Draganski

Answer 24

A true experiment where the aim was to investigate if learning a new skill, in this case juggling, would affect the brain. The participants were randomly allocated to conditions, onw group which learned to juggle, and one control group. All participants got a MRI scans before the experiment started. The participants who learnt to juggle then got a second MRI after they had learnt the routine. And a last third one after 3 months of no juggling. The results showed that after the 2nd scan the jugglers had more grey matter in the mid temporal lobe. But after the 3rd MRI there was no significant difference, meaning that pruning was also shown.

Question 25

HM

Answer 25

A case studie where the aim was to better understand how the removal of the hippocampus would affect a person. Multiple researchers used different mehods, including psychometric tests, interviews, observations, cognitive tests and the mirror drawing test. The results showed that HM create new LTMs of facts or events, but he could create new procedural memories which are also LTMs

Question 26

Antonova

Answer 26

An experiment which aimed to investigate the role of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in spatial memory and to see if scopolamine affects hippocampal activity when creating spatial memories. Participants were put in a fMRI and injected with either scopolamine or a placebo, and got to remeber how to find a pole in a VR arena. When they found the pole the screen turned black for 30 seconds before they were put in another area of the arena. They were then tasked to find the pole again. The result showed that those injected with scopolamie had a harder time finding the pole again, and they had reduced hippocampal activity.

Question 27

Rogers and Kestner

Answer 27

A lab experiment which aimed to investigate the role of Acetylcholine information of spatial memory. 30 mice were put in a Hebb Williams maze, which they got to get acustomed to. They were then either injected with scopolamine or a placebo, and ran the maze multiple times over 2 days. They measured encoding by comparing the first and last trials of day 1, and measured retrieval by comapring last trials of day one and first trials of day 2. The results showed that the rats injected with scopolamina made more mistakes and took a longer time in the learning of the maze, meaning they had a harder time creating the memories. However those injected with scopolamie had no problem retrieving the memories during day 2.

Question 28

Newcomer

Answer 28

An experiment which aimed to investigate wether high levels of the stress hormone cortisol affects verbal declarative memory. The experiment took place over 4 days, and the participants were randomly allocated to one of 3 conditions. Those in condition 1 got one 160 mg tablet of cortisol everyday. Those in condition 2 got a 40 mg tablet, and condition 3 got a placebo tablet with no cortisol. The participant were then asked to listen and recall a part of prose (new prose everyday), which they got tested on three times a day. The result showed that high levels of cortisol imaired vebal declarative memory, since the participants who got the 160 mg tablet performed the worst. There was no difference between the placebo group and the low level group.

Question 29

Ackerman

Answer 29

A correlation which aimed to investigate how ones naturally occuring cortisol levles affect memory. Before the experiment everyones cortisol level was measured via saliva. The participants then got to look at pictures which they were asked to rate as either positive, negative or neutral. The cortisol levels were then measured again. After 10 minutes they were then asked to recall the pictures, after which cortisol was measured again. They were then asked to recall the pictures again after 20 hours. The result showed that the participants who had a lower level of cortisol remembered the pictures better, which indicates that higher levels of cortisol hinders recall of episodic memories.

Question 30

Wedekind

Answer 30

A quasi experiment which aimed to investigate wether one’s MHC (major histocompability complex) would affect mate choise. The MHC of each participant was found. The men were then asked to wear a T-shirt for 2 nights, and that they washed their everyday clothes and bed sheets in perfume free detergent. They also showered with perfume free soap. The women were then asked to smell 7 shirts (3 with similair MHC as them, 3 with different MHC from them and 1 control) and rank them on a scale from 1 to 10 according to pleasantness and sexiness. The results showed that the women ranked the shirts with drfferent MHC from them, higher. This suggests that the MHC may play a role when choosing a mate.

Question 31

What is MHC

Answer 31

Major histocompability complex
The MHC is a group of proteins that let the immune system recognize different pathogens. It is argued that when the MHC genes of parents are diverse/as different as possible, the offspring will have a stronger immune system and that the way we smell is a sign of our MHC.

Question 32

Zhou

Answer 32

A true experiment which aimed to investigate if androstadienon (found in male semen and sweat) influences human sexual behaviour. The participants, which consisted of homo- and heterosexual men and women, were shown stickfigures walking on a screen, and wereasked what gender the figures had. In one of the conditions the participants were exposed to the smell of cloves mixed with androstadienon, while the other condition, the controll condition, smelled just cloves. The results showed that when heterosexual women and homosexual men were exposed to androstadienon they had a higher rate of identifying the figures as more maschuline. The heterosexual men and homosexual women however showed no difference when exposed to androstadienon.

Question 33

Caspi

Answer 33

A quasi experiment whcih aimed to investigate the role of the 5HTT gene on depression. The particpants were divided into 3 groups based on their 5HTT alleles, group 1 short short, group 2 short long and group 3 long long. The aprticipants were assesed for depression, awell as asked to fill out a “stressful life events” questionnaire. The results showed that those who had 2 short alleles aswell as 3 or more stressful live events, most likely had depression. So simply having the gene does not cause depression, but it appears to make one more vurnurable to the disorder.

Question 34

Risch

Answer 34

Did a meta-analysis on16 studies replicating Caspi’s study and showed that the results have been difficult to replicate. Only a few of the smaller studies replicated the results

Question 35

Kendler

Answer 35

A correlation which aimed to investigate wether depression might be inherited. Used the Swedish twin registry to comapre MZ twins and DZ twins. Telephone interviews were carried out in order to obtain information about depression in the participants. The results showed that the concordance rate for depression in MZ twins were abou 0.44 and in DZ twins it was 0.16. The difference in concordance rates might indicate that depression might be inherited. But since the concordance rates in MZ twins were not 1.00, depression is not only based on genes, but also gene expression due to life experiences.

Question 36

Weissman

Answer 36

A case study (20 years) which aimed to investigate if psychological disorders are inherited. The first 2 generations were interviewed repeatedly over 20 years, and when the 3rd generation were old enough they were investigated by a child psychiatrist and a psychologist. The results showed that the children in the 3rd generation had higher rates of pshycological disorders if the previous 2 generations had had it. The severity of the disorder in the parent did matter. But if only the parent, and not the grandparent, had it, it made no difference in the children.

Question 37

Clark and Hatfield

Answer 37

A field experiment which aimed to investigate gender diffrences in attitudes towards casual sex. It took place at a university campus in Florida, where students were approached by a confederate of the oppostie gender (of avarage looks). The confederate asked one of three questions: “would you go out with me tonight” “would you come over to my apartment tonight” or “would you come to bed with me tonight”. The results showed that 70% of the men and 6% of the women agreed to come over to the apartment. None of the women agreed to casual sex, but 75% of the men did.