Sociocultural Approach Flashcards
Social identity theory: Study social identity theory (The individual and the group)
Social groups: groups or cliques of members who share similar interests or sense of identity.
The social identity is a person’s sense of self based on their group membership. The theory acknowledges that we have a social identity (our identity in terms of group membership) and a personal identity (our self on a more private and individual level), and it is possible to have more than one of these as we are members of multiple social groups. It is also possible to leave a group, should an individual be dissatisfied, and move to another, which is known as permeability (when groups have strict boundaries and are therefore impermeable, the individuals will tend to display a stronger sense of in-group favoritism, and more discrimination towards the out-group). The social identity theory is based on three assumptions:
- Individuals strive to have a good self-esteem, which will give them a positive self-concept.
- Membership to a group leads to out-group positive or negative associations, and as such the individual will be judged based on their group’s collective values.
- An individual will assess the value of their own in-group membership via social comparison with an out-group. When an individual perceives their in-group more favorably, they will place more value on their membership and have a positive social identity.
Social cognitive theory: Study social cognitive theory (The individual and the group)
The Social Cognitive Theory attempts to explain how we learn from others. It states that we do so either directly by trial and error (performing and failing, subsequently learning) or indirectly by observing others (whose trial and error we can observe). It is based on behaviorism, which states that all learning is acquired through interacting with our environment. The theory consists of 4 components:
- Attention (that we actually observe carefully the trial-and-error process)
- Retention (that we remember what we observed so that we can perform the same behavior)
- Reproduction (performing the behavior which was observed)
- Motivation (feeling personally motivated to perform the behavior – if one is not motivated, then there is no reason to reproduce it)
Taylor and Jaggi (1974) [see social identity theory]
In-group favoritism and out-group (towards Muslims) dislike has been taught – the stereotypes are placed in the in-group and are observed by parents and other socializations (cultural learning)
Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment (Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961)
A: testing the social cognitive theory regarding aggression.
M: Matched pairs design (depending on aggressiveness)
P: Three groups. One was exposed to aggressive handling of Bobo, one to nonaggression, and one control. There was either a male or a female model which the children had to observe (attention). Every group was equally split with boys and girls, and the children were rated on aggressiveness beforehand. After being shown this, the children had to play with Bobo themselves (reproduction)
R: Results support the hypothesis that the exposure of children to aggressive models would increase aggressiveness. Boys were more likely to exhibit physical aggression, girls verbal aggression.
C: Confirms theory of observational learning. Does however rely on how much attention the child pays to the model, as well as what role the model plays in the child’s life.
E: Misinterpretation of results? Does the Bobo doll truly have any other purpose than being beaten? Low ecological validity and not longitudinal. Ethical consideration: teaching children violent behavior.
Formation of stereotypes and their effects on behavior: Study one example of the development and effect of stereotypes (The individual and the group)
Darley and Gross (1983)
A: investigate whether schemata will lead to the formation of stereotypes.
M: lab experiment
P: In the study, participants were divided into two groups. Both conditions were shown a video of girl taking an academic intelligence test. However, the two groups were either led to believe that a girl was from a high socioeconomic status or a low socio-economic status. The participants from the two groups were then to rate the girl’s academic performance.
R: in spite of watching the same ambiguous video, those who believed she came from a high socioeconomic status rated her academic performance much higher than those who were told the opposite. Both groups cited evidence from the videos to justify their answers.
C: showed the effects of social schemas on our perception and interpretations, here of stereotypes. It demonstrates stereotypical thinking. Participants applied their pre-existing schemas of what being poor or rich implies in terms of academic abilities, and interpreted the video accordingly.
E: lacks ecological validity. Not very generalizable (small sample of 67 undergraduates).
Taylor and Jaggi (1974) [see social identity theory]
The Hindus have Stereotypes of Muslims – that they exhibit more negative and socially undesirable behavior, which is then attributed to internal factors rather than external.
Culture and its influence on behavior and cognition: Study one example of culture and its influence on behavior and cognition (Cultural origins of behavior and cognition)
Cultural groups: Certain traditions, cultural norms, and behaviors which belong to one cultural setting or group of people.
Norasakkunkit & Uchida (2014)
Hsu and Barker (2013):
A: investigate the rise of individualism in China following the presence of Western advertisements
M: content analysis
P: Conducted content analysis of 566 television advertisements. The researchers then rated them for individualism or collectivism and the prominence of traditional and modern themes.
R: Results showed that the advertisements aimed at younger Chinese viewers scored higher on individualism than collectivism.
C: Since the advertisements must reflect the client/target audience’s values, we can conclude that after China opened its doors to trade in 1979, globalization/Westernization gave rise to cultural influences from the outside, which in turn gave rise to individualism in a traditionally collectivist society.
Cultural dimensions: Study one cultural dimension (Cultural origins of behavior and cognition)
Individualism/collectivism: Different cultures view themselves and others differently. In individualistic societies, it is more opportunity-based, whereas in collectivistic societies, the individual is a part of their group; they are one entity as a culture.
Berry and Katz
A: See if degree of individualism impacts behavior (in this case conformity)
M: Quasi experiment. Cross-cultural study on individualism vs collectivism including Scottish, Temne and Innuit. Used Asch Conformity test.
P: Asch paradigm to see who would conform from the Temne people of Sierra Leon and Innuits of North Canada. Hypothesis that Innuits conform less than the collectivist Temne who relies on tight social relations and unity for learning.
R: Temne conformed more than Innuits. Temne tended to accept suggestion and choose the incorrect response while the Inuit chose their own and were “unaffected” by the suggestions of their peers.
C: Difference due to different degrees of conformity required by environment and social group.
Hsu and Barker (2013)
Enculturation: Study one effect enculturation has on human cognition and behavior (Cultural influences on individual behavior)
Cultural norms: the unique set of attitudes, beliefs and behaviors specific to a particular culture.
Enculturation: Receiving cultural information and assimilating to the culture you live in; being taught cultural norms – that is, cultural transmission (“teaching”) and enculturation (“learning”) are two sides of the same process.
Demorest et al (2008)
A: to investigate the influence of enculturation on musical memory/cognition (cognitive schemas)
M:
P: 150 musically untrained participants from the USA and Turkey had to listen to musical excertps from both familiar and unfamiliar cultures (western, Turkish, and Chinese) and then completed a recognition memory task.
R: results showed that participants were much better at remembering music from their native culture, and that musical expertise did not correlate with this.
C: Enculturation influences musical memory on a deep level (cognitive schemas for musical information). Our culture influences what we consider music, or what sounds good to our ears, so remembering our native music is easier – we view music through our own lens (cognitive schema), and when the music does not fit this, it is alien and more difficult to remember.
Kim and Omizo (2006)
A: investigate the relationship between Asian Americans’ enculturation and acculturation in relation to the development of their identity.
M: correlational
P: Acculturation concerned how the participants were involved in European American cultural behaviors/norms, and enculturation concerned their involvement in Asian (/Asian American) cultural behaviors. 156 Asian American college students aged 18-29 had to fill out a questionnaire.
R: results showed that acculturation and enculturation scores did not correlate significantly. Both enculturation and acculturation were related positively to participants’ perception that they are good and worthy members of their cultural group. Enculturation: increased positive feeling towards Asian American social group and that being a member was important to their self-concept. Acculturation: associated with self-efficacy, cognitive flexibility, and the belief that others view the Asian American group positively.
C: Enculturation and acculturation (although independent processes) both contribute positively to the development of identity.
E: Self-report.
Acculturation: Study one effect acculturation has on human cognition and behavior (Cultural influences on individual behavior)
Assimilation/assimilate: take in and understand, embody cultural norms.
Acculturation: The merging of cultures/the change exhibited in one culture after contact with another.
Kim and Omizo (2006)
Hsu and Barker (2013)
The individual and the group (HL extension: The influence of globalization on individual behavior)
Norasakkunkit & Uchida (2014)
applied Berry and Sam’s acculturation model to explain the origins of hikikomori.
A: They hypothesized that Japanese youth may not see the benefit of conformity and social harmony which is characteristic of Japanese society and yet do not feel that they are part of the globalized community and its values. This leads to identity confusion and marginalization.
M: Questionnaire
P: To test their hypothesis (getting access to people who suffer from hikikomori is very difficult) the researchers used a sample of Japanese university students. The participants were given a standardized test to see whether they were at high risk or low risk for hikikomori. The researchers then gave the participants a test to measure their attitudes about social harmony and social conformity. The test looked at three levels:
- perception of their current self
- their ideal self
- and general Japanese society.
They were also asked to take a test to measure their sense of local identity (social harmony and collectivism) and global identity (individualism and achievement).
R: both groups agreed that social harmony and conformity were highly valued by Japanese society. However, when assessing their current self and ideal self, the students at high-risk for hikikomori ranked social harmony values much lower than the low-risk students. In addition, high-risk students scored lower than low-risk students on both local identity and global identity.
C: It appears that the local culture may alienate many Japanese youths who may then decide not to conform to the cultural norms, but do not identify with or know how to access the globalized culture, and so they withdraw from society.
E: Example of how the conflict between local and global culture may affect behavior. Critical thinking in terms of the sample – don’t actually have the disorder.
Hsu and Barker (2013)
Cultural origins of behavior and cognition (HL extension: The influence of globalization on individual behavior)
Norasakkunkit & Uchida (2014)
Hsu and Barker (2013)
Cultural influences on individual behavior (HL extension: The influence of globalization on individual behavior)
Norasakkunkit & Uchida (2014)
Hsu and Barker (2013)
Social identity theory studies
Taylor and Jaggi (1974)
Ultimate Attribution Error (UAE): The tendency to underestimate situational factors and overestimate personal factors as reasons for behavior, where people attribute negative behavior of the out-group and positive behavior of the in-group to internal causes.
A: to investigate inter-group causal attribution (and in-group favoritism) of Hindu people of southern India, who have a history of conflict with Muslims.
M: Independent measures design
P: Participants were required to read paragraphs describing either socially desirable or socially undesirable situations and behavior performed by either a Muslim or a Hindu. They then had to attribute the behavior to internal or external causes.
R: Results showed that they tended to attribute positive behavior of their ingroup to internal factors. This was not the case for ingroup negative behavior which was attributed to external factors. For the outgroup, however, they tended to attribute positive behavior to internal factors only 50% of the time and negative behavior to internal factors most of the time.
C: in-group favoritism is common, and causal attributions tend to favor the in-group and not so much the out-group. Additionally, the results of this study support the ultimate attribution error, as the two groups have had a history of conflict and are therefore more likely to exhibit the UAE, which is seen in that they regard the behavior of the outgroup more negatively, in that they rarely attribute positive behavior of the outgroup to internal factors – which is in accordance with their conceived stereotypes.
A Class Divided (1970/1985)
A: to help her students’ understanding of prejudice and racism and how they manifest in society.
M: Repeated measures
P: the brown-eyed and blue-eyed kids were separated, being informed that the blue-eyed were superior, using many examples to highlight this. The brown-eyed children had to wear blue collars, and the two groups were told not to interact with one another. This resulted in discrimination. Later, she reversed the roles, making the brown-eyed children superior. [The children later met as adults in 1985, to see how the experiment affected them.]
R: The behavior of the children changed with the separation; being superior creates higher self-esteem and leads to discrimination. The children also performed better academically when at the top.
C: Prejudice and discrimination are easily accomplished should people be put in positions that create a sense of superiority and inferiority between two groups of people, ultimately separating them. It can lead to violence and other unfair treatment. People of the inferior group will feel highly discriminated and unfairly treated, which can affect their performance on other tasks. On the contrary, people of the superior group like to feel in charge and better than the others.
E: Although students were debriefed, they might have experienced much stress (even though it lasted only two schooldays) and were unable to withdraw. Slightly unethical?
