Cognitive Approach

Question 1

Models of memory: Study two models of memory (cognitive processing)

Answer 1

Multi-store memory model:
Human memory consists of:
1. sensory memory
2. short-term memory storage (primitive transformation, approx. 30 sec duration).
3. long-term memory storage (much information for indefinite period, capacity not defined)
Information going from 1 –> 2 requires attention.
Rehearsal keeps stuff in 2., continuous rehearsal transfers it to 3.
Retrieval recalls information from 3 to 2

Working memory model:
Focuses on the structure of STM through the dual-task technique (two memory operations simultaneously).
- A central executive (simply a construct) coordinates three subsystems: visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop & episodic buffer.
- Visuospatial sketchpad: inner eye, all information visual and spatial
- Phonological loop: the inner ear; holds someone’s voice, and the inner voice allows for rehearsal and lets us read a book in our head: An articulatory rehearsal component (inner voice [does: 1) visual stimuli-sounds (phonological store) 2) rehearsal of sounds-LTM (auditory process)]
- Episodic buffer (added in 2000): integrates information from other stores and links to LTM structures.

Baddeley, Lewis, Vallar (1984): working memory model
A: Investigated the effects of articulatory suppression on the phonological similarity effect (blocking inner voice; preventing rehearsal)
M: repeated measures design
P: Repeating the same sound over and over while doing an experimental task, as to fill up the inner voice. Either they were asked to remember rhyming or non-rhyming words orally or in written form.
R: Orally, the rhyming words were harder to remember and for the written mode, the recall was the same for rhyming and non-rhyming.
C: The fact that written mode had no difference was concluded to be because the articulatory suppression didn’t interfere with memory because of the visuospatial sketchpad.
E: Supports the working memory model

Question 2

Multi-store memory model

Answer 2

Human memory consists of:
1. sensory memory
2. short-term memory storage (primitive transformation, approx. 30 sec duration).
3. long-term memory storage (much information for indefinite period, capacity not defined)
Information going from 1 –> 2 requires attention.
Rehearsal keeps stuff in 2., continuous rehearsal transfers it to 3.
Retrieval recalls information from 3 to 2

Question 3

Schema theory: Study one example of schema theory (Cognitive processing)

Answer 3

Darley and Gross (1983)
A: investigate whether schemata will lead to the formation of stereotypes.
M: lab experiment
P: In the study, participants were divided into two groups. Both conditions were shown a video of girl taking an academic intelligence test. However, the two groups were either led to believe that a girl was from a high socioeconomic status or a low socio-economic status. The participants from the two groups were then to rate the girl’s academic performance.
R: in spite of watching the same ambiguous video, those who believed she came from a high socioeconomic status rated her academic performance much higher than those who were told the opposite. Both groups cited evidence from the videos to justify their answers.
C: showed the effects of social schemas on our perception and interpretations, here of stereotypes. It demonstrates stereotypical thinking. Participants applied their pre-existing schemas of what being poor or rich implies in terms of academic abilities, and interpreted the video accordingly.
E: lacks ecological validity. Not very generalizable (small sample of 67 undergraduates).

Question 4

Types of schema

Answer 4

Cognitive schema: Schemas are mental representations that organize our knowledge, beliefs, and expectations. They are derived from prior experience and influence memory at all stages.

Social schemas: schemas about groups of people, e.g. stereotypes

Scripts: schemas about sequences of events, a pattern of behavior

Self-schemas: schemas about ourselves

Question 5

Thinking and decision-making: Study one model in thinking and decision-making. (Cognitive processing)

Answer 5

The Adaptive decision-maker framework postulates a toolbox of strategies for decision making, these include:
- Weighted additive strategy (WADD): find weighted sum of alternatives by giving a score of importance to each attribute
- Lexicographic (LEX): only looking at the most important attribute and then finding the best fitting alternative
- Satisficing (SAT): cut-off point for attributes, anything that doesn’t meet is eliminated, look for alternatives until an acceptable one is found.
- Elimination by aspects (EBA): selecting the most important attribute and eliminating alternatives that don’t meet the requirement, then second most etc… until only one option.
What influences our choice of strategy in terms of the adaptive decision-maker framework? (meta-goals)
Emotions and irrational factors influence strategy selection. Strategy selection is guided by goals:
- Maximizing decision accuracy: prefers WADD and quantifies attributes.
- Minimizing cognitive effort: LEX.
- Minimizing the experience of negative emotions: negative emotions associated with certain things can highly influence one’s decision-making – some decisions are emotion-laden. We try to not pick the decision which will implicit negative emotions. Researchers have proposed two hypotheses: that the negative emotion is an external factor that can influence the decision; and that decision-making adapts to the negative emotions, that it is a part of the process.
- Maximizing the ease of justification: EBA

Lulce, Bettman and Payne (1997):
A: Investigate whether task-related negative emotion will encourage decision-makers to process information more extensively due to attachment. Hypothesis is that it will.
M: Independent-measures design with a monitored information search (tracking clicks).
P: Students were asked to imagine they were charity members providing financial support for children. They had to choose one of five children in terms of five attributes. The information was on a PC and was shown upon a click (a programme tracked which boxes were opened when). There were two-patterns to be observed; alternative-based transitions and attribute-based transitions, where attribute-based transitions were less emotionally laden. Two groups: higher-emotion with extensive background and high stakes choice vs low-emotion with superficial text and low stakes.
R: High emotion group opened larger number of boxes and spent more time. They also engaged in attribute-based transitions.
C: High-emotion group avoided negative emotions, meaning emotions impact decision-making, and also the anticipation of emotion, supporting the adaptive decision-maker framework.
E: low sample population and variety hence not very representative.

Question 6

Rational and intuitive thinking

Answer 6

Rational (controlled) and intuitive (automatic)

Question 7

Framing

Answer 7

framing effect is a cognitive bias where participants make a decision based on whether the options they are given are positive or negative and tend to avoid risk by choosing the perceived positive option. However, a negative and positive option can have the same implications but be phrased differently, and so participants pick the more positively phrased option.

Question 8

Heuristics

Answer 8

mental shortcuts which allow us to solve problems and make judgements quickly and efficiently. These rule-of-thumb strategies shorten decision-making time and allow people to function without constantly stopping to think about their next course of action.

Question 9

Loss aversion

Answer 9

avoid loss: it’s better not to lose 20 dollars than to find 20 dollars.

Question 10

Appraisal

Answer 10

appraisal theory states that emotions are extracted from our evaluations (appraisals) of events that cause specific reactions in different people – our appraisal of a situation causes us to feel a certain way.

Question 11

Reconstructive memory: Study one example of reconstructive memory. (Reliability of cognitive processes)

Answer 11

Brown and Kulik (1977)
Defined flashbulb memories as: Vivid memories of circumstances in which one first learned of a surprising and emotionally arousing event. They proposed a theory of the formation and maintenance of FBMs: they are formed in situations where we encounter highly emotional information and are maintained through overt and covert rehearsal. These memories are more vivid, long-lasting, detailed, and special (but not more accurate) than normal memories. They suggest that these memories are remembered distinctly because they incite highly emotional responses.
A: To investigate if flashbulb memories are a distinct form of memory and the validity of them when compared to recall of everyday events.
M: questionnaire and interview
P: asked 80 men from ages 20 to 60 (40 black, 40 white) to recall circumstances where they had learned of shocking events. Researchers used 10 events, here among 9/11 and assassinations of American public figures such as JFK. They were asked how much they rehearse the events (either overtly or covertly) and had to answer questionnaires about how vividly they recalled, how they felt, and where they were when they found out about these events. Researchers also asked about other flashbulb memories of their personal lives such as the death of a family member.
R: participants had very clear memories of where they were, what they did, and what they felt when they first learned about an important public occurrence such as the assassination of JFK or Martin Luther King Jr. They also reported surprise and consequentiality. Researchers found personal relevance influenced whether the participants had memories of public events (75% of African American participants had a flashbulb memory of the assassination of Martin Luther King vs 33% of Caucasian participants).
They found that the two variables that created flashbulb memory were surprise and a high level of personal consequentiality. Once these things reach a certain level, it triggers the maintenance mechanism overt and covert rehearsal.
C: flashbulb memories are distinct and long-lasting. People form flashbulb memories of events that have important consequences for them (more emotion = more rehearsal = FBM). People’s disposition, race, etc. may affect how they recall the event, which would support the idea that emotions can typically influence and even overshadow how well and accurately something is remembered (more personal engagement = higher levels of memory reconstruction, as the events influence the participants at an emotional level. In situations like witness testimony, flashbulb memories may therefore hinder accurate testifying).
E: self-report.

Question 12

Types of reconstructive memory

Answer 12

Confabulation – a memory based on fabricated, distorted of misinterpreted memory often believed to be true in spite of contradictory evidence

Schema processing – memory processing based on prior knowledge in the form of schemas that could result in distortion.

False memories – recalling an event that never happened and believing it to be true.

Question 13

Biases in thinking and decision-making: Study one bias in thinking and decision-making ((Reliability of cognitive processes)

Answer 13

Darley and Gross (1983) [see schema theory above]:

Illusory correlation between high socioeconomic status and more intelligence/academic skill. Hence a stereotype.

Question 14

Biases

Answer 14

Relevant examples  are rational vs intuitive thinking, heuristics, algorithms, anchoring, framing and representativeness, as well as the cognitive biases:
Confirmation bias
Cognitive dissonance
Optimism bias
Selective attention
Illusory correlation

Question 15

The influence of emotion on cognitive processes: Study one example of the effect of emotion on a cognitive process. (Emotion and cognition)

Answer 15

(flashbulb memory!): Vivid memories of circumstances in which one first learned of a surprising and emotionally arousing event.

Brown and Kulik (1977) [see reconstructive memory above]

Question 16

Cognitive processing (HL extension: cognitive processing in a technological (digital/modern) world)

Answer 16

Rosser et al (2007): (positive effect of technology) [thinking and decision-making]
Some research studies show that interaction with digital technology has the potential to improve cognitive processing skills:
Rosser et al (2007); laparoscopic surgeons who played video games for more than three hours a week made 37% fewer errors in surgery and performed surgery 27% faster.
Not measured in real surgeries but simulations and drills as part of the training they received.
Playing video games was assessed through 1) questionnaires (experience) and b) playing three video games for 25 min and evaluating the total score (mastery)
Explanation of findings: playing video games leads to the improvement of fine motor skills, reaction time and attention. These skills are transferred to a different situation.
Method: questionnaire, measured videogame mastery, standardized set of drills, correlational study.

Swing et al (2010): (negative effect of technology) [thinking and decision-making]
A: investigate the relationship between gaming and (reduced) classroom attention.
M: longitudinal, reports filed out by teachers.
P: children (aged 6-12) were observed for 13 months with 4 measurements. The data came from teachers’ observations who reported when the children had trouble staying focused, interrupted others, or the like. 
R: results showed that playing games at the beginning of class reduces classroom activity and increases attention problems. More than two hours a day is more likely to be associated with attention problems. 
C: there is a correlation between videogames and reduced classroom attention (and ADHD).
E: correlation; more longitudinal studies needed. Self-report.

Question 17

Methods used to study the interaction between technology and cognitive processes

Answer 17

Observation, Interview, Survey/questionnaire, Correlational studies, Experiment, Neuroimaging technology, Experience sampling method, Longitudinal study, Minute by minute assessment of behavior.

Question 18

Reliability of cognitive processes (HL extension: cognitive processing in a technological (digital/modern) world)

Answer 18

Rosen et al (2010) [positive effect, sort of]
A: to experimentally examine the impact of text-message interruptions on memory recall in a classroom environment.
M: independent measures design, lab.
P: students were viewing a videotaped lecture and received a small, medium or a large number of text messages during the lecture. DV = the performance on the test after the lecture.
R: the more text messages, the worse test performance. However: this was mediated by response delay – students who replied immediately scored significantly worse than those who chose to read and respond sometime later.
C: you can consciously counterbalance the automatic tendency to get distracted by the digital world. Suggests that perhaps the digital world is not causing negative effects, but that it is our behavior and handling of technology that can cause negative outcomes to our behavior.
+
(use Swing et al (2010) instead) [negative effect, attention]

Question 19

Emotion and cognition: empathy (HL extension: cognitive processing in a technological (digital/modern) world)

Answer 19

Carrier et al (2015): (positive and negative effects of technology)
A: investigate the relationship between digital media use and empathy.
M: anonymous online questionnaire (correlational)
P: participants were asked about their daily media usage, real world and virtual empathy, and social support.
R: results showed that online activity that leads to face-to-face communication increased empathy, whereas online activity that did not reduced it. Video games reduced real-world empathy, irrespective of how much time spent on face-to-face communication. The scores for virtual empathy were lower than real-life empathy, because of the lack of non-verbal clues e.g., gestures and expressions.
C: However, online interaction does not necessarily displace face-to-face communication. Researchers concluded that the negative effect of digital technology on empathy should be attributed to online activities that are not associated with face-to-face communication.
E: Limitations: the study was conducted at a time when online interaction was minimum and not for establishing new friendships. Additionally, the study is a questionnaire; participants respond however they please, which can lead to false conclusions (self-report).