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SoCInstuderingsfrågor- AI Flashcards

1
Q

What are the fundamental questions social cognition asks?

A
  • How do we interpret social information?
  • How do these cognitive processes shape our interactions?

Fundamental questions guiding the study of social cognition.

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2
Q

What is social cognition?

A

Social cognition is how we perceive, process, store and apply information about social others

It involves the ability to discriminate between animate vs inanimate objects, social vs non-social beings.

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3
Q

What is the role of the social agent in social cognition?

A

The role of the social agent is to perceive, interpret, and respond to social information for effective navigation of social environments

A social agent is an individual actively engaging in social interactions.

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4
Q

Define a social agent.

A

A social agent is a complex, intentional causal agent capable of perception and changes upon being perceived

They process, interpret, and respond to social information.

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5
Q

What are the different views on how social agents process information?

A
  • Consistency Seeker
  • Naïve Scientist
  • Cognitive Miser
  • Motivated Tactician
  • Activated Actor

Each view reflects a different approach to understanding how individuals process social information.

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6
Q

What is the assumption of Cognitive Representations / Mentalism in social cognition?

A

Social cognition assumes that people mentally represent social information

This includes stereotypes, attitudes, and memories of social events.

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7
Q

What is the focus of social cognitive research?

A
  • Identification of processes and mechanisms
  • Interdisciplinary theory and methodology
  • Application

Social cognition research aims to uncover specific mental processes and mechanisms underlying social thinking.

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8
Q

What are modern trends in social cognitive research?

A
  • Brain imaging
  • Dependence on culture
  • Method and replication

Trends include the use of fMRI to study brain activation and the recognition that findings may vary across cultures.

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9
Q

Who are the WEIRD people?

A

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic

Research on WEIRD people may not be representative of the entire population.

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10
Q

What is the difference between automatic and controlled cognitive systems?

A
  • Automatic processes are faster, intuitive, emotional
  • Controlled processes are rational, logical, effortful

Automatic processes operate unconsciously, while controlled processes require conscious effort.

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11
Q

What is priming?

A

Priming is the prior exposure to a certain stimuli influencing the reaction to subsequent stimuli

It can be cognitive, affective, or behavioral.

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12
Q

What is proceduralization?

A

Proceduralization is the process of automation through repeated execution of the same process

It relates to how behaviors become efficient and habitual over time.

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13
Q

What are the social factors that influence whether cognitive processes are automatic or controlled?

A
  • Belonging
  • Understanding
  • Controlling
  • Enhancing Self
  • Trusting In-group

These factors determine the recruitment of automatic or controlled cognitive processes.

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14
Q

What methods do researchers use to understand what others are thinking?

A
  • Sampling People’s Thoughts
  • Experience-Sampling
  • Probes
  • Think-Aloud
  • Naturalistic Social Cognition
  • Role-Play Participation

These methods capture cognitive and emotional processes in real time.

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15
Q

What are some issues with knowing what people are thinking?

A

People may not always be trustworthy and it is difficult to find objective measures

Participants may respond in ways they think are expected.

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16
Q

Describe unimode models.

A

Unimode models suggest that different cognitive processes in social cognition use different resources and can be faster or slower

They do not categorize processes as purely automatic or controlled.

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17
Q

Why do we have cognitive processes for social cognition?

A
  • Cognitive Efficiency
  • Social Flexibility
  • Adaptability
  • Survival
  • Understanding of self and others

These processes aid in navigating complex social environments.

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18
Q

What is the dual-stage two-phase model of selective attention?

A
  • Perceptual Filters (First Stage)
  • Category Membership (Second Stage)

This model explains how stimuli are filtered and evaluated based on relevance and expectations.

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19
Q

What is the difference between attention and encoding?

A
  • Attention is selectively focusing on information
  • Encoding is transforming perceived stimuli into mental representations

Attention determines what information is processed further.

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20
Q

What is special about faces in social interactions?

A

Faces are the focus of attention, and humans excel at recognizing faces

Holistic recognition of faces is better than feature recognition.

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21
Q

What did Todorov et al. (2005) study show?

A

We draw inferences about traits based on facial features

This study linked appearance of politicians to perceived competence.

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22
Q

What are the neural correlates of face perception?

A

FFA, Visual cortex, insula, IOG, IFG are involved in facial recognition

The FFA is a specialized brain area for processing faces.

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23
Q

What is the difference between change blindness and choice blindness?

A
  • Change blindness: inability to see changes when not focused
  • Choice blindness: failure to notice mismatches in decision outcomes

Both show limitations in our attention and encoding capacities.

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24
Q

What is the anger vs. happy superiority effect?

A
  • Angry superiority effect: angry faces stand out more
  • Happy superiority effect: happy faces stand out more

These effects influence how we detect threats and cooperative partners.

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25
What makes certain stimuli salient?
* Visually different * Extreme * Unexpected * Negative events * Goal-relevant * Physical position ## Footnote Salience is context-dependent.
26
How does saliency influence cognitive processes?
Saliency directs attention and influences memory and judgments ## Footnote It can affect how we attribute causes and remember events.
27
What did the Graham & Lowert (2004) study show about accessibility and priming?
Exposing people to primes can make certain judgments more accessible ## Footnote It highlighted unconscious racial stereotypes in policing.
28
What conditions are best for priming effects?
Presenting the prime closely followed by the stimulus ## Footnote Longer waiting times before retrieval reduce priming effects.
29
What is inattentional blindness?
Even salient stimuli can be ignored if we don’t attend to them ## Footnote It demonstrates limitations in our attentional capacity.
30
What is the difference between self-schema and self-esteem?
* Self-schemas are cognitive-affective structures representing self-qualities * Self-esteem is the evaluation of competence within domains ## Footnote Self-esteem varies in importance across different domains.
31
How can implicit self-esteem be measured?
By measuring reaction time for linking positive trait attributes to self ## Footnote This method assesses automatic evaluations of self-worth.
32
What brain areas are involved in self-perception?
* Ventromedial PFC * Nucleus accumbens * Amygdala * Hippocampus * Posterior Parietal Cortex * Lateral PFC ## Footnote Different areas activate for self vs. other perception.
33
What did the Leiden Self-Concept study find?
Increased self-knowledge translates into differential recruitment of brain regions ## Footnote The study examined self-evaluation across different domains.
34
What is the Non-Self Schematic?
A cognitive and effortful process involving brain regions like the Hippocampus, Posterior Parietal Cortex, and lateral PFC.
35
What does the Leiden Self-Concept study reveal about self-knowledge?
Increased self-knowledge and self-awareness translates into differential recruitment of brain regions implicated in self-evaluation, which is domain, valence, and age specific.
36
What domains were evaluated in the Leiden study?
* Academic * Physical * Prosocial
37
Which trait sentence had the fastest reaction time in the Leiden study?
Physical traits.
38
How does age affect reaction times in self-evaluation according to the Leiden study?
Slower reaction times with increasing age.
39
What brain region is recruited during self-evaluation?
mPFC.
40
What is the significance of domain and valence in self-evaluation?
They reflect which areas of the brain activate and whether the evaluation is positive or negative.
41
How does self-awareness affect response times in self-evaluation?
Increased self-awareness slows response and increases evaluation time.
42
What is the nature of prosocial identity in self-concept?
Deeply integrated into self-concept but takes longer to process due to its complexity.
43
What is the distinction between Independent Self and Interdependent Self?
* Independent Self: Seen in Western culture as unique and separate from others * Interdependent Self: Seen in Eastern culture as adjusting according to social context and obligations
44
What is self-regulation?
The way in which you comfort yourself by monitoring, controlling, and adjusting actions, behaviors, emotions, and thoughts.
45
Why do we self-regulate?
* To pursue goals * To adhere to social norms * To maintain focus * To respond to environmental demands
46
What influences self-regulation?
* Motivational systems (BAS & BIS) * Experiences * Individual differences * Ideal vs. ought self
47
What is the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)?
A system sensitive to punishment, threats, and uncertainty that regulates fear and anxiety.
48
What is the Behavioral Activation System (BAS)?
A system sensitive to rewards and goal-oriented behavior that drives exploration and excitement.
49
What is self-efficacy?
Expectations about our abilities to accomplish specific tasks.
50
What is personal control?
A general sense of mastery that enables planning, coping with setbacks, and pursuing self-regulatory activities.
51
What is a positive illusion?
An overly positive perception of oneself, believing to be less biased than others and recalling positive experiences better than failures.
52
How can positive illusions be adjusted?
* Accountability * Objectivity * Reality
53
What is Tesser’s Self-Evaluation Maintenance (SEM) model?
A model suggesting that social comparisons help maintain positive self-regard and knowledge about self-perception accuracy.
54
What are the two main processes in Tesser’s SEM model?
* Reflection * Comparison
55
What does Terror Management Theory (TMT) suggest?
Affirming one’s worldview and self-esteem buffers death-related thoughts and maintains psychological well-being.
56
How does high self-esteem function according to TMT?
It reduces existential anxiety by making people feel valuable and significant.
57
What is a self-concept?
Perceptions, feelings, and attitudes a person has about themselves.
58
How does the self originate?
From embodied, sensory motor experiences with the environment, starting with self-recognition at 18 months.
59
What are threats to self-regulation?
* Social exclusion * Self-control dilemmas * Cognitive load
60
What is Social Projection?
The tendency to use oneself as an anchor to evaluate and interpret others.
61
What is Simulation Theory?
Inferring mental states of others based on one's own mental states, emotions, and behaviors.
62
What does Carver’s Cybernetic Theory explain?
Self-regulation as an ongoing loop of comparing behavior to goals and adjusting based on emotional feedback.
63
What is attribution?
The process of assigning explanations for one's or others' actions.
64
What are the basic principles of causality in attribution?
* Cause precedes effect * Cause is temporally and spatially close to effect * Salient stimuli are perceived as more causal
65
What does covariation mean in Kelley's theory?
How well information correlates, including distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency.
66
What is the false consensus effect?
The tendency to regard one's behavior as typical and assume others would react similarly.
67
What is the fundamental attribution error?
The tendency to overestimate dispositional factors as causes of others' behavior.
68
What is the actor-observer effect?
The tendency to attribute others' behaviors to dispositional factors while attributing one's own to situational factors.
69
How does self-serving attributional bias differ from self-centered bias?
SSA attributes successes to positive dispositional factors and failures to situational factors, while SCB overestimates one’s own contributions compared to others.
70
What is rationality?
The quality of being guided by reason, with normative and descriptive perspectives.
71
What is a heuristic?
A 'rule of thumb' for decision-making that provides good enough results.
72
What is expected utility theory?
A theory suggesting decisions are made based on expected utility, assessing alternatives for probability and value.
73
What is the representativeness heuristic?
A heuristic used to infer probabilities based on how well an instance matches a general category.
74
What is confirmation bias?
The tendency to seek and remember information that confirms pre-existing beliefs.
75
What is the availability heuristic?
Evaluating the probability of events based on how readily examples come to mind.
76
Vad innebär ’bekräftelsebias’/’confirmation bias’?
Confirmation bias är ett bias som innebär att vi hittar information och minns information som bekräftar våra redan etablerade uppfattningar.
77
Vad innebär ’availability heuristic’?
Availability heuristik evaluerar sannolikheten av att event kommer inträffa baserat på hur snabbt exempel kommer till minnet.
78
Vad är ett exempel på availability heuristic?
Om man snabbt kommer på exempel på människor i omgivningen som har bytt jobb, kommer man estimera att många människor byter jobb.
79
Vad är ’anchoring’ för något?
Anchoring innebär att människor börjar med en referenspunkt och justerar den för att nå en slutlig slutsats.
80
Vad säger ’prospect theory’ om människors beslutsfattande?
Prospect Theory visar att vi är irrationella och påverkas av psykologiska faktorer som förlustaversion och referenspunkter.
81
Vad är förlustaversion (Loss Aversion)?
Förlustaversion innebär att vi ogillar förluster mer än vi gillar motsvarande vinster.
82
Vad innebär ’Wisdom of Crowds’?
Wisdom of crowds är en normativ heuristik som bygger på att det aggregerade omdömet hos massan är bättre än experters omdömen.
83
Vad innebär ’base-rate neglect’?
Base-rate neglect är tendensen att ignorera generell information om populationen till förmån för mer konkret men mindre valid information.
84
Vad är ’the conjunction fallacy’?
Conjunction fallacy är ett tankefel där människor gör mer extrema förutsägelser för den gemensamma förekomsten av händelser än för enskilda händelser.
85
Vad är ’hindsight bias’?
Hindsight bias är tendensen att tro att vi var mer förutseende än vi faktiskt var, vilket leder till överkonfidens.
86
Vad innebär ’illusory correlation’?
Illusory correlation är överestimering av en korrelation eller påförande av en relation när ingen faktiskt existerar.
87
Vad menas med en attityd inom social kognition?
En attityd är en inlärd tendens att evaluera ett målobjekt i en positiv eller negativ valens.
88
Vad är kognitiv dissonans?
Kognitiv dissonans uppstår när ens attityd står i kontrast till ens beteende.
89
Vad innebär ’group polarization’?
Group polarization är när gruppdiskussioner leder till att man favoriserar en riskigare alternativ än genomsnittet av individuella beslut.
90
Vad innebär ’mere exposure effect’?
Mere-exposure effekt är att upprepad exponering för ett stimuli ger en mer positiv attityd till stimulit.
91
Vad är Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)?
ELM är en modell för att visa sannolikheten för att vi analyserar ett meddelande och hur vi kan bli övertygade.
92
Vad är en implicit association?
En implicit association är en association som inte är uttalad, utan mäts genom response times.
93
Vilka komponenter består attityder av?
* Affektiv: Känslor kopplade till attitydobjektet * Beteende: Tidigare beteenden relaterade till attitydobjektet * Kognitiv: Trosföreställningar och tankar associerade till attitydobjektet
94
Vad är funktionerna av attityder?
* Utilitarisk: Attityder i självintresse * Kunskap: Ger ramverk för att strukturera kunskaper * Ego-försvar: Stämmer med självbild * Uttryck för värdering: Resultat av grundläggande värderingar
95
Vad är den psykologiska definitionen av en stereotyp?
En stereotyp är en kognitiv förenkling eller generalisering om en grupp människor, där vissa egenskaper antas gälla för alla individer i gruppen.
96
Vad är skillnaden mellan stereotyper och fördomar?
En stereotyp är en kognitiv struktur utan affekt, medan fördomar är affektiva och reflekterar personliga uppfattningar.
97
Hur relaterar stereotyper och fördomar till varandra?
Stereotyper är tankar eller uppfattningar om en grupp, medan fördomar är känslor eller attityder baserade på stereotyper.
98
Vad är en fördom?
En känsla eller attityd baserad på stereotypen (t.ex. ogillande).
99
Vad innebär diskriminering?
Ett beteende som leder till orättvis behandling baserat på fördomar.
100
Hur påverkar fördomar rättsväsendet?
Svarta får strängare straff och kvinnor får mildare straff i relation till män.
101
Hur relaterar stereotyper och fördomar till varandra?
Stereotyper och fördomar påverkar både varandra och diskriminerande beteende.
102
Vad är en blatant stereotype?
En uttalad/explicit stereotyp som används aktivt i tänkandet.
103
Vad är en subtle stereotype?
Stereotyper som är mer gömda och kan vara omedvetna.
104
Vad innebär Social Identity Theory?
Teori om hur självförtroende påverkar beteende genom gruppidentitet.
105
Vad är ingroup favoritism?
Favoritismen av ingroup, där vi föredrar de som tillhör vår grupp.
106
Förklara vad 'stereotype threat’ innebär.
Hur allmänt hållna stereotyper påverkar medlemmar av den påverkade gruppen negativt.
107
Hur skiljer sig fördomar från attityder?
Fördomar är mer komplexa och inkluderar känslor som rädsla och avsky.
108
Är stereotyper nödvändigtvis ett negativt fenomen?
Nej, stereotyper kan även vara positiva eller neutrala.
109
Vilka kognitiva faktorer påverkar våra fördomar?
Kognitiv belastning, implicit bias, kategoriindelning.
110
Vilka emotionella faktorer påverkar våra fördomar?
Rädsla och hot, ilska och frustration.
111
Vilka sociala faktorer påverkar våra fördomar?
Normer och grupptryck, ingroupsidentifikation, mediepåverkan.
112
Vilka situationella faktorer påverkar våra fördomar?
Tidsbrist, anonymitet, makt och status.
113
Vad innebär bekräftelsebias?
Tendensen att söka information som bekräftar våra befintliga fördomar.
114
Vad är en implicit association?
En omedveten koppling mellan två koncept i vårt minne.
115
Varför är implicita associationer intressanta?
De påverkar vårt beteende utan att vi är medvetna om det.
116
Vad är skillnaden mellan explicita och implicita attityder?
Explicita attityder är medvetna, medan implicita attityder är omedvetna.
117
Vilka problem finns med IAT (Implicit Association Test)?
Låg reliabilitet och validitet, svårt att koppla till faktiska beteenden.
118
Vad är illusory correlation?
Överskattningen av frekvens av kongreuenta förekomster.

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