Society in Transition 1918-1979 Flashcards
Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951
Class in 1918
- Social class largely determined status and place in society
- Tendency for higher classes, members of establishment, to be treated with deference by those in lower social orders
Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951
Growing Sympathy between Classes post-WWI
- Common experiences of soldiers and officers in trenches - greater empathy between soldiers of different ranks and classes
- Many members of UC maintained sympathyfor WC - more egalitarian political beliefs, which formed basis of PWC
- Decline in deference - members of WC no longer held automatic respect for those in UC
Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951
Decline in the Upper Classes post WWI
- Disproportionately high death toll among UC in the war - particularly among young men who stood to inherit family wealth and responsibilities
- 1914: 6 peers, 16 baronets, 6 knights, 261 sons of aristocrats dead
- Many forced to pay Death Duties for those killed - had to sell land or homes to pay for this, couldn’t afford to maintaint grand homes
Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951
Greater Equality post-WWI
- More democratic societ - 1918 ROPA
- Trade unions gained important concessions from gov throughout war - eg. pay, hour
- Improvement in employment conditions - eg. provision of holiday pay in 1939
- Even during GD, prices fell faster than wages
- Many felt less disadvantaged than before - surplus income, affluence
Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951
Housing in the Interwar Wars
- Growth in construction of houses for owner occupiers - indicator of improving living standards
- 1937: peak year of interwar housing boom - 275K homes built
- Home owners/occupiers: 750K in early 1920s to 3.25M in 1938
- Growing suburbs - increased car ownership, extension of railway network made commuting possible
- House owners felt less removed from those in higher status
Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951
Impact of WWII and Labour Gov 1945-1951
- Gov mobilised all sections of society in order to win the war
- Sense that all were sharing the privations
- Many aspired for more intagrated society post-war - exemplified by election of Labour gov committed to wholesale reform
- Class system largely intact - emphasis on greater equality of opportunity, not class equality
The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979
‘British New Wave’
- More questioning of traditional values
- ‘Anrgy Young Men’ - wrote about protagonists coming to terms with end of old WC world and brith new prosperity
- No time for deference
The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979
The ‘Satire Boom’
- Clear example of decline in deference
- Late 50s-early 60s
- Often ridiculed establishment figures - esp. members of gov
- By ealry 60s, it was a regular feature of TV programminf
- eg. That Was the Week that Was
The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979
Sex Scandals
- Series of sex and moral scandals rocked gov in 1960s
- 1963 Profumo Affair - John Profumo, Minister for War, admitted to lying about his relations with a much younger woman
- Ensuing investigation implicated many senior establishment figures in disreputable activities - made gov look ridiculous
The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979
The Swinging Sixties
- In popular mythology: 60s saw new freedoms in terms of behaviour, dress, and attitudes
- Particularly related to sexual behaviour, where ideas of premarital sex, and having multiple sexual partners became widely accepted
The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979
Swinging London
- Atmosphere of lively music, dance, and bright/provocative clothing exemplified by mid-60s London
- Trendy boutiques, Exciting nightlife, ready availability of drugs, and celebration of youth
The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979
Provocative Musicals
- Many ideas were provocative
- American musical ‘Hair’ - showed full nudity on stage when it opened in the UK in 1968
- ‘Oh! Calcutta!’ - opened in london in 1970, celebration of sexual activities, ran for 3.9K performances
The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979
The Generation Gap
- Many conservative people reacted strongly to the perceived lack of morality
- When 2 members of the Rolling Stones were arrested for narcotics in 1967, the Times castigated the Establishment for overreacting
- Elders could no longer understand or empathise with the young
- Newspapers reporting scandals polarised British public opinion on sex between those who were shocked and alarmed about the rise of ‘permissive’ attitudes, and those who embraced them - eg. Lady Chatterley’s Lover was banned, later published by Penguin
The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979
Critics
- Mary Whitehouse: Teacher & Social activist who attacked immorality on TV - formed National Viewers’ and Listeners’ Association, over 100K members
- Malcolm Muggeridge: Broadcaster, formed the Festival of Light to promote Christian values in broadcasting
Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women
Women in Politics
- 1918: Suffrage at age of 30, and for land owners
- 1928: Suffrage at age 21
- 1924 Labour gov - Margaret Bondfield became first female minister
- Women were never more than 5% of MPS - peak at 15 female MPs in 1931
- Petty restrictions - unable to use Commons dining room
- Labour MP Edith Summerskill: ‘like a boys school which had decided to take a few girls’
Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women
Political Party Attitudes
- Labour attracted more women than other parties - proponent of women’s enfranchisement and social reform
- 150K joined Labour 1918-1924
- Only 9 women served as Labour MPs during interwar
- Other parties tended to see women in subservient role - delivering leaflets, organising fundraisers
- No party encouraged women to become MPs
Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women
Local Government
- Women more influential at local level
- 1930 - less than 25% of elected local councillors
- Local councillor position often grounding for national office - Thelma Cazalet-Keir who was Cons. Councillor in London 1924-1931 and then became MP in 1931
Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women
Employment Opportunities
- Failures in political advancements mirrored in limited employment opportunities
- Most women who worked during the war were forced to give up jobs when men returned
- Most of those remaining in work were WC/domestic servants - 1.25M in 1918
- Those who worked in heavy factory work were the first to lose jobs in the Depression
Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women
New Opportunities
- Emerged in clerical work and new ‘light industry’ factories - # of women working in offices grew by 300K during 1920s
- Little movement towards achieving equal pay, opportunities for women in professions remained limited
- 1931 - 3K doctors, 180K nurses, 21 architects
- MC girls would work until marriage - esp. in teaching
- Women worked for ‘pin money’ - not as important as domestic responsibilities
Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women
Education
- Secondary School level - low expectations, curricula focused on domesticity
- Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919 - removed gender bar in civil service and law
- Gave determined women an incentive to consider these professions
- Most universities abolished bans on women
- Gradual signs of improvement
Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979
Family Life
- 1918-1960: women’s role and status largely unchanged apart from wartime period - improved opportunities temporary response to emergency situation
- Women largely seen as homemakers
- Few gains during interwar - divorce, birth control
- More significant changes in 60s & 70s
Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979
Matrimonial Causes Act 1937
- Allowed divorce if either partner was unfaithful, or in case of desertion ater 3 years
- Before - avg. # of divorce petitions was <4.8K
- By 1951 - 38K per year
Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979
Divorce Reform Act 1969
- Divorce easier for couples living apart
- Introduced idea of no guilt divorce - previously needed evidence of cruelty, desertion, or adultery
- Divorce rate rose - 45K in 1968, 74K in 1971
Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979
Birth Control
- 1921: first birth control clinic in London, founded by Dr Marie Stopes
- Opposition from many doctors and conservative groups - encouraged promiscuity
- Demands for birth control advice saw spread of clinics in 1920s
- Women began to feel in control of their reproductive processes in the 60s after the introduction of the pill
Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979
Abortion Act 1967
- Previously illegal - still, 100K-250K per year
- 35K wealthier women had safer abortions with medical personnel - most had backstreet abortions in unsanitary places (high risk)
- Introduced by Liberal MP David Steel
- Allowed termination up to 28 weeks if 2 doctors agreed pregnancy would be a risk to mother
Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979
Post war period
- WWII involved the majority of the adult female population in war work or active service
- Fragmentation caused by wartime experience - immediately post-war many were happy to return to primary role of homemaker/ mother as men returned
Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979
The 1950s
- Golden age of family, women seen as lynchpin
- Media particularly depicted women as homemakers - more did work, WC women still had largely menial and badly paid work in addition of homemaking
- By late 1950s surveys showed women’s increasing isolation and discontentment with their role/status in society
Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979
The 1960s and 1970s
- Challenges to traditional family structures - more liberal legislation
- Economic problems - unemployment, need for both adults to work in order to maintain lifestyle
- If trad. family and women’s role within it had not yet broken down, it was clearly under threat
Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979
Women in Politics
- Comparatively few developments
- 1966 election - less than 80 women stood, only 21 successful
- Barbara Castle supported improved working conditions for women but generally reticent about gender issues
Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979
Second Wave Feminism
- Grew to address concerns such as gender stereotyping, limited employment opportunities, and demand for a greater role in society than domesticity
- Also known as ‘women’s liberation’
Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979
Women’s Liberation
- Protests such as Dagenham strike stimulated women’s lib in GB
- Little progress since 1940s, when women had started voicing frustrations
- In 1960s, some began to see struggle for economic equality in terms of social inequalities - women treated as second class citizens
- Sheila Rowbotham - National Women’s Conference, Oxford 1970
- Coincided with growing high-profile activism such as marches and demonstrations - 1970 attack on Miss World contest
Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979
Dagenham Strike 1968
- Sewing machinists at Ford Motor Company striking for equal pay
- Unsuccessful, but actions resonated with many
- Instrumental in passage of Equal Pay Act of 1970
Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979
Feminist Literature
- Late 60s saw increase
- Magazines such as Shrew
- Germaine Greer’s book ‘The Female Eunuch’ - received wide publicity, argued men’s control over women had stifled individuality and development
Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979
Problems with the Women’s Liberation movement
- Covered many diverse agendas - eg. housewives who wanted respect and radicals who hated all men
- Difficult to take concerted action
- Some joined female only communes, others focused on economic issues, others prioritised abortion and birth control
- Others promoted role of women as homemaker, often within the context of traditional family values and moral conduct - received wide publicity
Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979
The Equal Pay 1970
- Made to come into effect in 1975
- It’s passage was a precondition of joining the EEC
- Notion of equal pay is difficult when judged against equal work - women didn’t receive equal pay in many cases because their work was different to men’s
Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979
The Sex Discrimination Act 1975
- Set up Equal Opportunities Commission to ensure fair employment practices were observed and that women had legal protection against discrimination in education and employment
- Established tribunals to deal with workplace and everyday sexual harrassment
Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
Black & Asian Communities in 1918
- By end of WWII - GB’s Black & Asian communities had grown
- Seamen, Labourers, Soldiers from Caribbean, Africa, Indian sub-continent stationed in GB during the War
Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
Working Rights
- Interwar attitudes to migrant workers - barrier to rights as workers
- Unions, lawmakers, police - considered minorities non-British, not entitled to same rights as white British workers
Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
The Colour Bar
- In theory - All British citizens had same rights to work and use public facilities regardless of ethnicity
- In practice - People of colour excluded from certain types of employment, denied access to healthcare/education, refused service in theatres/hotels/restaurants
Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
‘Alien’ Workers
- Widespread dsicrimination 1918-1939
- White people tended to view people of colour as alien, inferior, un-British
Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
Race Riots 1919
- Cardiff, Newport, Glasgow, Salford, Hull, South Shields, London
- Angry mobs of unemployed White Britons attacked Black & Asian people whom they considered foreign - thought they weren’t entitled to jobs in Britain
Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
Discrimination
- Post-1919 - trade unions fought for the ‘right’ of white workers to take jobs of people of colour
- National Union of Seamen - demanded that jobs of non-white sailors be given to white seamen
- NUS campaigns led to 2 laws which placed many people of colour under threat of deportation
Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
Special Restrictions Act (Coloured Alien Seamen Act) 1925
- Forced ‘coloured’ seamen to provide British Citizenship to immigration authorities or face deportation
- Assumed that ‘coloured’ seamen were non-British unless they could provide status as citizens
Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
The Alien Orders Act 1920
- Required migrant workers to register with police before seeking work
- Those who failed to comply would be punished by deportation
Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
Discrimination in the 1930s
- Black people more likely to be unemployed than white people
- 1934-35 - League of Coloured People reported that 80% of Black & Asian men had been unemployed for prolonged period, compared to 30% of white men
- Widespread discrimination against Black & Asian workers
Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
The Communist Party of Great Britain
- CPGB played significant role in leading fightback against racism during interwar
- Shapurji Saklatvala - Indian-born radical who played leading role in movement
Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
The International African Service Bureau (IASB)
- Established newspaper - International African Opinion
- Encouraged readers to lobby MPs for Black rights
- Specifically lobbied for equal access to healthcare facilities
Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration
Impact of WWII
- Series of important consequences for gov policy, Nritish economy, and society
- Many came to GB to fight in armed forces and work
- Despote discrimination, many decided to remain in GB
Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration
‘New Commonwealth’ Immigration 1945-1958
- Old Commonwealth - former Empire countries with predominantly white population (Australia, NZ, Canada)
- New Commonwealth - fromer Empire countries with predominantly Black or Asian population (Jamaica, Ghana, India)
Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration
Causes of mass immigration
- Serious labour shortage post-war - opportunity for immigrants from across the Empire to earn more money than they could in home countries
- Gov policy made it easy for imperial subjects to gain entry to Britain
- British Nationality Act 1948 - new legal right for all people in British colonies to enter UK
Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration
HMT Empire Windrush
- Arrived in June 1948
- Brought 492 people from Jamaica to GB
- Celebrated as beginning of mass migration
Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration
Impact of Mass Migration 1948-1958
- Changed population of GB - Asian & Caribbean communities grew from 10Ks to 100Ks
- Neither Labour nor Cons. govs welcomed noew immigration - despite passage of 1948 BNA
- PMs Attlee & Churchill actively tried to discourage immigration from New Commonwealth - put pressure on Caribbean, African, and Asian govs to restrict passport availability
- Labour & Cons. govs both considered policies such as limits on ‘coloured’ immigration and repatriation
Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration
Quotas on employment of immigrants from New Commonwealth
- DUring 50s, unions & management in some businesses (eg. Ford Dagenham, Tate & Lyle) enforced quota system - 95% of jobs had to go to white people
- Similar agreement in public transport
- 1955 - white transport workers went on strike due to breach of 95% rule in Wolverhampton
Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration
White Violence
- Mass immigration accompanied by white violence against new immigrants
- Many resented what they perceived as pressure on local facilities such as housing, schools, and healthcare provision
- Believed it was result of influx
Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration
Race Riots 1958
- August Bank Holiday - series of racial attacks in various cities from Nottingham to Notting Hill
- Initial TV coverage showed attacks on police & firefighters trying to douse burning buildings - drew attention to conflict, may have prompted further disturbances
- Subsequent enquiry - tensions largely result of cultural differences and pressure on availability of accomodation
- Immigration into already overcrowded/deprived areas caused problems
Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
Racial Controversy
- Continued immigration from New Commonwealth
- Many whites believed this threatened jobs and put undue pressure on housing and social sevices
- Many immigrants and descendants faced discrimination & prejudice
- Racial tensions periodically flared into violence - provoked backlash from both sides
- Controversy compounded by gov legislation which restricted further immigration but guaranteed legal rights to those already here
Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
1962 Commonwealth Immigration Act
Limited immigration by making it dependent on:
* Would-be immigrants had a job to go to
* Possessing particular skills (eg. in medicine)
* Being dependants of people already here (eg. children)
Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
Racial Tensions
- Smethwick by-election 1964 - Cons. candidate adopted overtly racist campaign
- Immigrants from NC continued to face discrimination (and sometimes attacks) - despite legislation to prevent this
- Worsened in 1968 when thousands of Asian citizens were expelled from Kenya and sought sanctuary in UK, as was their legal right
Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
Kenyan Asian people
- By spring 1968 - 2K Kenyan Asians arriving in GB each moth
- Known to be hard-working and entrepeneurial - many white Britons still showed animosity
- Home Sec. Callaghan acknowledged concerns with 1968 Commonwealth Immigration Act
Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
Commonwealth Immigration Act 1968
- Tightened immigration rules
- Restricted NC immigration to 1500 per year
- Left 200K Kenyan Asians stateless
- Critics saw it as divisive and unfair
- Opinion polls showed over 72% of respondents in support
Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
‘Rivers of Blood’ Speech
- Despite 1968 CIA, continued immigration led to white backlash
- Shadow Defence Secretary Enoch Powell made notorious ‘Rivers of Blood’ speech in Brmingham, April 1968
- Argued that, to prevent race war, ‘coloured’ immigrants should be encouraged to repatriate
- Powell dismisssed from his position as shadow minister
- Speech resonated with many - 1K London dockers marched in support
Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
Race Relations Acts 1965 & 1968
Together:
* Outlawed racial discrimination in public places
* Outlawed incitement to racial hatred
* Set up Race Relations Board to investigate allegations of racial discrimination
* Set up Community Relations Commission to promote co-operation between different ethnic groups
Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
Race Relations Act 1976
- Outlawed indirect discrimination - where discrimination was hidden
- eg. Job interviewee not hired because he was black, but not being informed this was the case
- Created Commission for Racial Equality to police work against discrimination
Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
White Backlash in the 1970s
- Saw emergence of extreme right-wing party - National Front
- Briefly enjoyed electoral success - leader Martin Webster polled 16% of vote in West Bromwich by-election in May 1973
- Held noisy, provocative demonstrations which attracted skinheads and other disaffected young people
- More opposed them in Anti-Nazi League & Rock Against Racism movement, which was supported by many popular musicians of the day
