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Society in Transition 1918-1979 Flashcards

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1
Q

Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951

Class in 1918

A
  • Social class largely determined status and place in society
  • Tendency for higher classes, members of establishment, to be treated with deference by those in lower social orders
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2
Q

Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951

Growing Sympathy between Classes post-WWI

A
  • Common experiences of soldiers and officers in trenches - greater empathy between soldiers of different ranks and classes
  • Many members of UC maintained sympathyfor WC - more egalitarian political beliefs, which formed basis of PWC
  • Decline in deference - members of WC no longer held automatic respect for those in UC
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3
Q

Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951

Decline in the Upper Classes post WWI

A
  • Disproportionately high death toll among UC in the war - particularly among young men who stood to inherit family wealth and responsibilities
  • 1914: 6 peers, 16 baronets, 6 knights, 261 sons of aristocrats dead
  • Many forced to pay Death Duties for those killed - had to sell land or homes to pay for this, couldn’t afford to maintaint grand homes
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4
Q

Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951

Greater Equality post-WWI

A
  • More democratic societ - 1918 ROPA
  • Trade unions gained important concessions from gov throughout war - eg. pay, hour
  • Improvement in employment conditions - eg. provision of holiday pay in 1939
  • Even during GD, prices fell faster than wages
  • Many felt less disadvantaged than before - surplus income, affluence
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5
Q

Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951

Housing in the Interwar Wars

A
  • Growth in construction of houses for owner occupiers - indicator of improving living standards
  • 1937: peak year of interwar housing boom - 275K homes built
  • Home owners/occupiers: 750K in early 1920s to 3.25M in 1938
  • Growing suburbs - increased car ownership, extension of railway network made commuting possible
  • House owners felt less removed from those in higher status
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6
Q

Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951

Impact of WWII and Labour Gov 1945-1951

A
  • Gov mobilised all sections of society in order to win the war
  • Sense that all were sharing the privations
  • Many aspired for more intagrated society post-war - exemplified by election of Labour gov committed to wholesale reform
  • Class system largely intact - emphasis on greater equality of opportunity, not class equality
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7
Q

The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979

‘British New Wave’

A
  • More questioning of traditional values
  • ‘Anrgy Young Men’ - wrote about protagonists coming to terms with end of old WC world and brith new prosperity
  • No time for deference
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8
Q

The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979

The ‘Satire Boom’

A
  • Clear example of decline in deference
  • Late 50s-early 60s
  • Often ridiculed establishment figures - esp. members of gov
  • By ealry 60s, it was a regular feature of TV programminf
  • eg. That Was the Week that Was
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9
Q

The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979

Sex Scandals

A
  • Series of sex and moral scandals rocked gov in 1960s
  • 1963 Profumo Affair - John Profumo, Minister for War, admitted to lying about his relations with a much younger woman
  • Ensuing investigation implicated many senior establishment figures in disreputable activities - made gov look ridiculous
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10
Q

The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979

The Swinging Sixties

A
  • In popular mythology: 60s saw new freedoms in terms of behaviour, dress, and attitudes
  • Particularly related to sexual behaviour, where ideas of premarital sex, and having multiple sexual partners became widely accepted
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11
Q

The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979

Swinging London

A
  • Atmosphere of lively music, dance, and bright/provocative clothing exemplified by mid-60s London
  • Trendy boutiques, Exciting nightlife, ready availability of drugs, and celebration of youth
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12
Q

The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979

Provocative Musicals

A
  • Many ideas were provocative
  • American musical ‘Hair’ - showed full nudity on stage when it opened in the UK in 1968
  • ‘Oh! Calcutta!’ - opened in london in 1970, celebration of sexual activities, ran for 3.9K performances
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13
Q

The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979

The Generation Gap

A
  • Many conservative people reacted strongly to the perceived lack of morality
  • When 2 members of the Rolling Stones were arrested for narcotics in 1967, the Times castigated the Establishment for overreacting
  • Elders could no longer understand or empathise with the young
  • Newspapers reporting scandals polarised British public opinion on sex between those who were shocked and alarmed about the rise of ‘permissive’ attitudes, and those who embraced them - eg. Lady Chatterley’s Lover was banned, later published by Penguin
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14
Q

The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979

Critics

A
  • Mary Whitehouse: Teacher & Social activist who attacked immorality on TV - formed National Viewers’ and Listeners’ Association, over 100K members
  • Malcolm Muggeridge: Broadcaster, formed the Festival of Light to promote Christian values in broadcasting
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15
Q

Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women

Women in Politics

A
  • 1918: Suffrage at age of 30, and for land owners
  • 1928: Suffrage at age 21
  • 1924 Labour gov - Margaret Bondfield became first female minister
  • Women were never more than 5% of MPS - peak at 15 female MPs in 1931
  • Petty restrictions - unable to use Commons dining room
  • Labour MP Edith Summerskill: ‘like a boys school which had decided to take a few girls’
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16
Q

Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women

Political Party Attitudes

A
  • Labour attracted more women than other parties - proponent of women’s enfranchisement and social reform
  • 150K joined Labour 1918-1924
  • Only 9 women served as Labour MPs during interwar
  • Other parties tended to see women in subservient role - delivering leaflets, organising fundraisers
  • No party encouraged women to become MPs
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17
Q

Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women

Local Government

A
  • Women more influential at local level
  • 1930 - less than 25% of elected local councillors
  • Local councillor position often grounding for national office - Thelma Cazalet-Keir who was Cons. Councillor in London 1924-1931 and then became MP in 1931
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18
Q

Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women

Employment Opportunities

A
  • Failures in political advancements mirrored in limited employment opportunities
  • Most women who worked during the war were forced to give up jobs when men returned
  • Most of those remaining in work were WC/domestic servants - 1.25M in 1918
  • Those who worked in heavy factory work were the first to lose jobs in the Depression
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19
Q

Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women

New Opportunities

A
  • Emerged in clerical work and new ‘light industry’ factories - # of women working in offices grew by 300K during 1920s
  • Little movement towards achieving equal pay, opportunities for women in professions remained limited
  • 1931 - 3K doctors, 180K nurses, 21 architects
  • MC girls would work until marriage - esp. in teaching
  • Women worked for ‘pin money’ - not as important as domestic responsibilities
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20
Q

Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women

Education

A
  • Secondary School level - low expectations, curricula focused on domesticity
  • Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919 - removed gender bar in civil service and law
  • Gave determined women an incentive to consider these professions
  • Most universities abolished bans on women
  • Gradual signs of improvement
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21
Q

Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979

Family Life

A
  • 1918-1960: women’s role and status largely unchanged apart from wartime period - improved opportunities temporary response to emergency situation
  • Women largely seen as homemakers
  • Few gains during interwar - divorce, birth control
  • More significant changes in 60s & 70s
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22
Q

Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979

Matrimonial Causes Act 1937

A
  • Allowed divorce if either partner was unfaithful, or in case of desertion ater 3 years
  • Before - avg. # of divorce petitions was <4.8K
  • By 1951 - 38K per year
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23
Q

Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979

Divorce Reform Act 1969

A
  • Divorce easier for couples living apart
  • Introduced idea of no guilt divorce - previously needed evidence of cruelty, desertion, or adultery
  • Divorce rate rose - 45K in 1968, 74K in 1971
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24
Q

Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979

Birth Control

A
  • 1921: first birth control clinic in London, founded by Dr Marie Stopes
  • Opposition from many doctors and conservative groups - encouraged promiscuity
  • Demands for birth control advice saw spread of clinics in 1920s
  • Women began to feel in control of their reproductive processes in the 60s after the introduction of the pill
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25
Q

Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979

Abortion Act 1967

A
  • Previously illegal - still, 100K-250K per year
  • 35K wealthier women had safer abortions with medical personnel - most had backstreet abortions in unsanitary places (high risk)
  • Introduced by Liberal MP David Steel
  • Allowed termination up to 28 weeks if 2 doctors agreed pregnancy would be a risk to mother
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26
Q

Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979

Post war period

A
  • WWII involved the majority of the adult female population in war work or active service
  • Fragmentation caused by wartime experience - immediately post-war many were happy to return to primary role of homemaker/ mother as men returned
27
Q

Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979

The 1950s

A
  • Golden age of family, women seen as lynchpin
  • Media particularly depicted women as homemakers - more did work, WC women still had largely menial and badly paid work in addition of homemaking
  • By late 1950s surveys showed women’s increasing isolation and discontentment with their role/status in society
28
Q

Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979

The 1960s and 1970s

A
  • Challenges to traditional family structures - more liberal legislation
  • Economic problems - unemployment, need for both adults to work in order to maintain lifestyle
  • If trad. family and women’s role within it had not yet broken down, it was clearly under threat
29
Q

Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979

Women in Politics

A
  • Comparatively few developments
  • 1966 election - less than 80 women stood, only 21 successful
  • Barbara Castle supported improved working conditions for women but generally reticent about gender issues
30
Q

Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979

Second Wave Feminism

A
  • Grew to address concerns such as gender stereotyping, limited employment opportunities, and demand for a greater role in society than domesticity
  • Also known as ‘women’s liberation’
31
Q

Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979

Women’s Liberation

A
  • Protests such as Dagenham strike stimulated women’s lib in GB
  • Little progress since 1940s, when women had started voicing frustrations
  • In 1960s, some began to see struggle for economic equality in terms of social inequalities - women treated as second class citizens
  • Sheila Rowbotham - National Women’s Conference, Oxford 1970
  • Coincided with growing high-profile activism such as marches and demonstrations - 1970 attack on Miss World contest
32
Q

Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979

Dagenham Strike 1968

A
  • Sewing machinists at Ford Motor Company striking for equal pay
  • Unsuccessful, but actions resonated with many
  • Instrumental in passage of Equal Pay Act of 1970
33
Q

Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979

Feminist Literature

A
  • Late 60s saw increase
  • Magazines such as Shrew
  • Germaine Greer’s book ‘The Female Eunuch’ - received wide publicity, argued men’s control over women had stifled individuality and development
34
Q

Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979

Problems with the Women’s Liberation movement

A
  • Covered many diverse agendas - eg. housewives who wanted respect and radicals who hated all men
  • Difficult to take concerted action
  • Some joined female only communes, others focused on economic issues, others prioritised abortion and birth control
  • Others promoted role of women as homemaker, often within the context of traditional family values and moral conduct - received wide publicity
35
Q

Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979

The Equal Pay 1970

A
  • Made to come into effect in 1975
  • It’s passage was a precondition of joining the EEC
  • Notion of equal pay is difficult when judged against equal work - women didn’t receive equal pay in many cases because their work was different to men’s
36
Q

Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979

The Sex Discrimination Act 1975

A
  • Set up Equal Opportunities Commission to ensure fair employment practices were observed and that women had legal protection against discrimination in education and employment
  • Established tribunals to deal with workplace and everyday sexual harrassment
37
Q

Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39

Black & Asian Communities in 1918

A
  • By end of WWII - GB’s Black & Asian communities had grown
  • Seamen, Labourers, Soldiers from Caribbean, Africa, Indian sub-continent stationed in GB during the War
38
Q

Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39

Working Rights

A
  • Interwar attitudes to migrant workers - barrier to rights as workers
  • Unions, lawmakers, police - considered minorities non-British, not entitled to same rights as white British workers
39
Q

Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39

The Colour Bar

A
  • In theory - All British citizens had same rights to work and use public facilities regardless of ethnicity
  • In practice - People of colour excluded from certain types of employment, denied access to healthcare/education, refused service in theatres/hotels/restaurants
40
Q

Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39

‘Alien’ Workers

A
  • Widespread dsicrimination 1918-1939
  • White people tended to view people of colour as alien, inferior, un-British
41
Q

Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39

Race Riots 1919

A
  • Cardiff, Newport, Glasgow, Salford, Hull, South Shields, London
  • Angry mobs of unemployed White Britons attacked Black & Asian people whom they considered foreign - thought they weren’t entitled to jobs in Britain
42
Q

Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39

Discrimination

A
  • Post-1919 - trade unions fought for the ‘right’ of white workers to take jobs of people of colour
  • National Union of Seamen - demanded that jobs of non-white sailors be given to white seamen
  • NUS campaigns led to 2 laws which placed many people of colour under threat of deportation
43
Q

Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39

Special Restrictions Act (Coloured Alien Seamen Act) 1925

A
  • Forced ‘coloured’ seamen to provide British Citizenship to immigration authorities or face deportation
  • Assumed that ‘coloured’ seamen were non-British unless they could provide status as citizens
44
Q

Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39

The Alien Orders Act 1920

A
  • Required migrant workers to register with police before seeking work
  • Those who failed to comply would be punished by deportation
45
Q

Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39

Discrimination in the 1930s

A
  • Black people more likely to be unemployed than white people
  • 1934-35 - League of Coloured People reported that 80% of Black & Asian men had been unemployed for prolonged period, compared to 30% of white men
  • Widespread discrimination against Black & Asian workers
46
Q

Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39

The Communist Party of Great Britain

A
  • CPGB played significant role in leading fightback against racism during interwar
  • Shapurji Saklatvala - Indian-born radical who played leading role in movement
47
Q

Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39

The International African Service Bureau (IASB)

A
  • Established newspaper - International African Opinion
  • Encouraged readers to lobby MPs for Black rights
  • Specifically lobbied for equal access to healthcare facilities
48
Q

Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration

Impact of WWII

A
  • Series of important consequences for gov policy, Nritish economy, and society
  • Many came to GB to fight in armed forces and work
  • Despote discrimination, many decided to remain in GB
49
Q

Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration

‘New Commonwealth’ Immigration 1945-1958

A
  • Old Commonwealth - former Empire countries with predominantly white population (Australia, NZ, Canada)
  • New Commonwealth - fromer Empire countries with predominantly Black or Asian population (Jamaica, Ghana, India)
50
Q

Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration

Causes of mass immigration

A
  • Serious labour shortage post-war - opportunity for immigrants from across the Empire to earn more money than they could in home countries
  • Gov policy made it easy for imperial subjects to gain entry to Britain
  • British Nationality Act 1948 - new legal right for all people in British colonies to enter UK
51
Q

Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration

HMT Empire Windrush

A
  • Arrived in June 1948
  • Brought 492 people from Jamaica to GB
  • Celebrated as beginning of mass migration
52
Q

Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration

Impact of Mass Migration 1948-1958

A
  • Changed population of GB - Asian & Caribbean communities grew from 10Ks to 100Ks
  • Neither Labour nor Cons. govs welcomed noew immigration - despite passage of 1948 BNA
  • PMs Attlee & Churchill actively tried to discourage immigration from New Commonwealth - put pressure on Caribbean, African, and Asian govs to restrict passport availability
  • Labour & Cons. govs both considered policies such as limits on ‘coloured’ immigration and repatriation
53
Q

Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration

Quotas on employment of immigrants from New Commonwealth

A
  • DUring 50s, unions & management in some businesses (eg. Ford Dagenham, Tate & Lyle) enforced quota system - 95% of jobs had to go to white people
  • Similar agreement in public transport
  • 1955 - white transport workers went on strike due to breach of 95% rule in Wolverhampton
54
Q

Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration

White Violence

A
  • Mass immigration accompanied by white violence against new immigrants
  • Many resented what they perceived as pressure on local facilities such as housing, schools, and healthcare provision
  • Believed it was result of influx
55
Q

Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration

Race Riots 1958

A
  • August Bank Holiday - series of racial attacks in various cities from Nottingham to Notting Hill
  • Initial TV coverage showed attacks on police & firefighters trying to douse burning buildings - drew attention to conflict, may have prompted further disturbances
  • Subsequent enquiry - tensions largely result of cultural differences and pressure on availability of accomodation
  • Immigration into already overcrowded/deprived areas caused problems
56
Q

Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979

Racial Controversy

A
  • Continued immigration from New Commonwealth
  • Many whites believed this threatened jobs and put undue pressure on housing and social sevices
  • Many immigrants and descendants faced discrimination & prejudice
  • Racial tensions periodically flared into violence - provoked backlash from both sides
  • Controversy compounded by gov legislation which restricted further immigration but guaranteed legal rights to those already here
57
Q

Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979

1962 Commonwealth Immigration Act

A

Limited immigration by making it dependent on:
* Would-be immigrants had a job to go to
* Possessing particular skills (eg. in medicine)
* Being dependants of people already here (eg. children)

58
Q

Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979

Racial Tensions

A
  • Smethwick by-election 1964 - Cons. candidate adopted overtly racist campaign
  • Immigrants from NC continued to face discrimination (and sometimes attacks) - despite legislation to prevent this
  • Worsened in 1968 when thousands of Asian citizens were expelled from Kenya and sought sanctuary in UK, as was their legal right
59
Q

Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979

Kenyan Asian people

A
  • By spring 1968 - 2K Kenyan Asians arriving in GB each moth
  • Known to be hard-working and entrepeneurial - many white Britons still showed animosity
  • Home Sec. Callaghan acknowledged concerns with 1968 Commonwealth Immigration Act
60
Q

Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979

Commonwealth Immigration Act 1968

A
  • Tightened immigration rules
  • Restricted NC immigration to 1500 per year
  • Left 200K Kenyan Asians stateless
  • Critics saw it as divisive and unfair
  • Opinion polls showed over 72% of respondents in support
61
Q

Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979

‘Rivers of Blood’ Speech

A
  • Despite 1968 CIA, continued immigration led to white backlash
  • Shadow Defence Secretary Enoch Powell made notorious ‘Rivers of Blood’ speech in Brmingham, April 1968
  • Argued that, to prevent race war, ‘coloured’ immigrants should be encouraged to repatriate
  • Powell dismisssed from his position as shadow minister
  • Speech resonated with many - 1K London dockers marched in support
62
Q

Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979

Race Relations Acts 1965 & 1968

A

Together:
* Outlawed racial discrimination in public places
* Outlawed incitement to racial hatred
* Set up Race Relations Board to investigate allegations of racial discrimination
* Set up Community Relations Commission to promote co-operation between different ethnic groups

63
Q

Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979

Race Relations Act 1976

A
  • Outlawed indirect discrimination - where discrimination was hidden
  • eg. Job interviewee not hired because he was black, but not being informed this was the case
  • Created Commission for Racial Equality to police work against discrimination
64
Q

Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979

White Backlash in the 1970s

A
  • Saw emergence of extreme right-wing party - National Front
  • Briefly enjoyed electoral success - leader Martin Webster polled 16% of vote in West Bromwich by-election in May 1973
  • Held noisy, provocative demonstrations which attracted skinheads and other disaffected young people
  • More opposed them in Anti-Nazi League & Rock Against Racism movement, which was supported by many popular musicians of the day

history - britain (5 decks)

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