Society in Transition 1918-1979 Flashcards
1
Q
Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951
Class in 1918
A
- Social class largely determined status and place in society
- Tendency for higher classes, members of establishment, to be treated with deference by those in lower social orders
2
Q
Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951
Growing Sympathy between Classes post-WWI
A
- Common experiences of soldiers and officers in trenches - greater empathy between soldiers of different ranks and classes
- Many members of UC maintained sympathyfor WC - more egalitarian political beliefs, which formed basis of PWC
- Decline in deference - members of WC no longer held automatic respect for those in UC
3
Q
Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951
Decline in the Upper Classes post WWI
A
- Disproportionately high death toll among UC in the war - particularly among young men who stood to inherit family wealth and responsibilities
- 1914: 6 peers, 16 baronets, 6 knights, 261 sons of aristocrats dead
- Many forced to pay Death Duties for those killed - had to sell land or homes to pay for this, couldn’t afford to maintaint grand homes
4
Q
Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951
Greater Equality post-WWI
A
- More democratic societ - 1918 ROPA
- Trade unions gained important concessions from gov throughout war - eg. pay, hour
- Improvement in employment conditions - eg. provision of holiday pay in 1939
- Even during GD, prices fell faster than wages
- Many felt less disadvantaged than before - surplus income, affluence
5
Q
Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951
Housing in the Interwar Wars
A
- Growth in construction of houses for owner occupiers - indicator of improving living standards
- 1937: peak year of interwar housing boom - 275K homes built
- Home owners/occupiers: 750K in early 1920s to 3.25M in 1938
- Growing suburbs - increased car ownership, extension of railway network made commuting possible
- House owners felt less removed from those in higher status
6
Q
Class, Social Change, and the Impact of wars 1918-1951
Impact of WWII and Labour Gov 1945-1951
A
- Gov mobilised all sections of society in order to win the war
- Sense that all were sharing the privations
- Many aspired for more intagrated society post-war - exemplified by election of Labour gov committed to wholesale reform
- Class system largely intact - emphasis on greater equality of opportunity, not class equality
7
Q
The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979
‘British New Wave’
A
- More questioning of traditional values
- ‘Anrgy Young Men’ - wrote about protagonists coming to terms with end of old WC world and brith new prosperity
- No time for deference
8
Q
The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979
The ‘Satire Boom’
A
- Clear example of decline in deference
- Late 50s-early 60s
- Often ridiculed establishment figures - esp. members of gov
- By ealry 60s, it was a regular feature of TV programminf
- eg. That Was the Week that Was
9
Q
The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979
Sex Scandals
A
- Series of sex and moral scandals rocked gov in 1960s
- 1963 Profumo Affair - John Profumo, Minister for War, admitted to lying about his relations with a much younger woman
- Ensuing investigation implicated many senior establishment figures in disreputable activities - made gov look ridiculous
10
Q
The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979
The Swinging Sixties
A
- In popular mythology: 60s saw new freedoms in terms of behaviour, dress, and attitudes
- Particularly related to sexual behaviour, where ideas of premarital sex, and having multiple sexual partners became widely accepted
11
Q
The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979
Swinging London
A
- Atmosphere of lively music, dance, and bright/provocative clothing exemplified by mid-60s London
- Trendy boutiques, Exciting nightlife, ready availability of drugs, and celebration of youth
12
Q
The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979
Provocative Musicals
A
- Many ideas were provocative
- American musical ‘Hair’ - showed full nudity on stage when it opened in the UK in 1968
- ‘Oh! Calcutta!’ - opened in london in 1970, celebration of sexual activities, ran for 3.9K performances
13
Q
The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979
The Generation Gap
A
- Many conservative people reacted strongly to the perceived lack of morality
- When 2 members of the Rolling Stones were arrested for narcotics in 1967, the Times castigated the Establishment for overreacting
- Elders could no longer understand or empathise with the young
- Newspapers reporting scandals polarised British public opinion on sex between those who were shocked and alarmed about the rise of ‘permissive’ attitudes, and those who embraced them - eg. Lady Chatterley’s Lover was banned, later published by Penguin
14
Q
The Emergence of the ‘Liberal Society’ and its opponents 1951-1979
Critics
A
- Mary Whitehouse: Teacher & Social activist who attacked immorality on TV - formed National Viewers’ and Listeners’ Association, over 100K members
- Malcolm Muggeridge: Broadcaster, formed the Festival of Light to promote Christian values in broadcasting
15
Q
Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women
Women in Politics
A
- 1918: Suffrage at age of 30, and for land owners
- 1928: Suffrage at age 21
- 1924 Labour gov - Margaret Bondfield became first female minister
- Women were never more than 5% of MPS - peak at 15 female MPs in 1931
- Petty restrictions - unable to use Commons dining room
- Labour MP Edith Summerskill: ‘like a boys school which had decided to take a few girls’
16
Q
Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women
Political Party Attitudes
A
- Labour attracted more women than other parties - proponent of women’s enfranchisement and social reform
- 150K joined Labour 1918-1924
- Only 9 women served as Labour MPs during interwar
- Other parties tended to see women in subservient role - delivering leaflets, organising fundraisers
- No party encouraged women to become MPs
17
Q
Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women
Local Government
A
- Women more influential at local level
- 1930 - less than 25% of elected local councillors
- Local councillor position often grounding for national office - Thelma Cazalet-Keir who was Cons. Councillor in London 1924-1931 and then became MP in 1931
18
Q
Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women
Employment Opportunities
A
- Failures in political advancements mirrored in limited employment opportunities
- Most women who worked during the war were forced to give up jobs when men returned
- Most of those remaining in work were WC/domestic servants - 1.25M in 1918
- Those who worked in heavy factory work were the first to lose jobs in the Depression
19
Q
Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women
New Opportunities
A
- Emerged in clerical work and new ‘light industry’ factories - # of women working in offices grew by 300K during 1920s
- Little movement towards achieving equal pay, opportunities for women in professions remained limited
- 1931 - 3K doctors, 180K nurses, 21 architects
- MC girls would work until marriage - esp. in teaching
- Women worked for ‘pin money’ - not as important as domestic responsibilities
20
Q
Suffrage, political advancement, economic opportunities for women
Education
A
- Secondary School level - low expectations, curricula focused on domesticity
- Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919 - removed gender bar in civil service and law
- Gave determined women an incentive to consider these professions
- Most universities abolished bans on women
- Gradual signs of improvement
21
Q
Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979
Family Life
A
- 1918-1960: women’s role and status largely unchanged apart from wartime period - improved opportunities temporary response to emergency situation
- Women largely seen as homemakers
- Few gains during interwar - divorce, birth control
- More significant changes in 60s & 70s
22
Q
Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979
Matrimonial Causes Act 1937
A
- Allowed divorce if either partner was unfaithful, or in case of desertion ater 3 years
- Before - avg. # of divorce petitions was <4.8K
- By 1951 - 38K per year
23
Q
Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979
Divorce Reform Act 1969
A
- Divorce easier for couples living apart
- Introduced idea of no guilt divorce - previously needed evidence of cruelty, desertion, or adultery
- Divorce rate rose - 45K in 1968, 74K in 1971
24
Q
Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979
Birth Control
A
- 1921: first birth control clinic in London, founded by Dr Marie Stopes
- Opposition from many doctors and conservative groups - encouraged promiscuity
- Demands for birth control advice saw spread of clinics in 1920s
- Women began to feel in control of their reproductive processes in the 60s after the introduction of the pill
25
# Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979
Abortion Act 1967
* Previously illegal - still, 100K-250K per year
* 35K wealthier women had safer abortions with medical personnel - most had backstreet abortions in unsanitary places (high risk)
* Introduced by Liberal MP David Steel
* Allowed termination up to 28 weeks if 2 doctors agreed pregnancy would be a risk to mother
26
# Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979
Post war period
* WWII involved the majority of the adult female population in war work or active service
* Fragmentation caused by wartime experience - immediately post-war many were happy to return to primary role of homemaker/ mother as men returned
27
# Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979
The 1950s
* Golden age of family, women seen as lynchpin
* Media particularly depicted women as homemakers - more did work, WC women still had largely menial and badly paid work in addition of homemaking
* By late 1950s surveys showed women's increasing isolation and discontentment with their role/status in society
28
# Changes in family life, quest for personal freedoms 1918-1979
The 1960s and 1970s
* Challenges to traditional family structures - more liberal legislation
* Economic problems - unemployment, need for both adults to work in order to maintain lifestyle
* If trad. family and women's role within it had not yet broken down, it was clearly under threat
29
# Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979
Women in Politics
* Comparatively few developments
* 1966 election - less than 80 women stood, only 21 successful
* Barbara Castle supported improved working conditions for women but generally reticent about gender issues
30
# Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979
Second Wave Feminism
* Grew to address concerns such as gender stereotyping, limited employment opportunities, and demand for a greater role in society than domesticity
* Also known as 'women's liberation'
31
# Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979
Women's Liberation
* Protests such as Dagenham strike stimulated women's lib in GB
* Little progress since 1940s, when women had started voicing frustrations
* In 1960s, some began to see struggle for economic equality in terms of social inequalities - women treated as second class citizens
* Sheila Rowbotham - National Women's Conference, Oxford 1970
* Coincided with growing high-profile activism such as marches and demonstrations - 1970 attack on Miss World contest
32
# Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979
Dagenham Strike 1968
* Sewing machinists at Ford Motor Company striking for equal pay
* Unsuccessful, but actions resonated with many
* Instrumental in passage of Equal Pay Act of 1970
33
# Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979
Feminist Literature
* Late 60s saw increase
* Magazines such as Shrew
* Germaine Greer's book 'The Female Eunuch' - received wide publicity, argued men's control over women had stifled individuality and development
34
# Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979
Problems with the Women's Liberation movement
* Covered many diverse agendas - eg. housewives who wanted respect and radicals who hated all men
* Difficult to take concerted action
* Some joined female only communes, others focused on economic issues, others prioritised abortion and birth control
* Others promoted role of women as homemaker, often within the context of traditional family values and moral conduct - received wide publicity
35
# Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979
The Equal Pay 1970
* Made to come into effect in 1975
* It's passage was a precondition of joining the EEC
* Notion of equal pay is difficult when judged against equal work - women didn't receive equal pay in many cases because their work was different to men's
36
# Struggle to improve the Role and Status of Women 1968-1979
The Sex Discrimination Act 1975
* Set up Equal Opportunities Commission to ensure fair employment practices were observed and that women had legal protection against discrimination in education and employment
* Established tribunals to deal with workplace and everyday sexual harrassment
37
# Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
Black & Asian Communities in 1918
* By end of WWII - GB's Black & Asian communities had grown
* Seamen, Labourers, Soldiers from Caribbean, Africa, Indian sub-continent stationed in GB during the War
38
# Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
Working Rights
* Interwar attitudes to migrant workers - barrier to rights as workers
* Unions, lawmakers, police - considered minorities non-British, not entitled to same rights as white British workers
39
# Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
The Colour Bar
* In theory - All British citizens had same rights to work and use public facilities regardless of ethnicity
* In practice - People of colour excluded from certain types of employment, denied access to healthcare/education, refused service in theatres/hotels/restaurants
40
# Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
'Alien' Workers
* Widespread dsicrimination 1918-1939
* White people tended to view people of colour as alien, inferior, un-British
41
# Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
Race Riots 1919
* Cardiff, Newport, Glasgow, Salford, Hull, South Shields, London
* Angry mobs of unemployed White Britons attacked Black & Asian people whom they considered foreign - thought they weren't entitled to jobs in Britain
42
# Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
Discrimination
* Post-1919 - trade unions fought for the 'right' of white workers to take jobs of people of colour
* National Union of Seamen - demanded that jobs of non-white sailors be given to white seamen
* NUS campaigns led to 2 laws which placed many people of colour under threat of deportation
43
# Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
Special Restrictions Act (Coloured Alien Seamen Act) 1925
* Forced 'coloured' seamen to provide British Citizenship to immigration authorities or face deportation
* Assumed that 'coloured' seamen were non-British unless they could provide status as citizens
44
# Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
The Alien Orders Act 1920
* Required migrant workers to register with police before seeking work
* Those who failed to comply would be punished by deportation
45
# Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
Discrimination in the 1930s
* Black people more likely to be unemployed than white people
* 1934-35 - League of Coloured People reported that 80% of Black & Asian men had been unemployed for prolonged period, compared to 30% of white men
* Widespread discrimination against Black & Asian workers
46
# Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
The Communist Party of Great Britain
* CPGB played significant role in leading fightback against racism during interwar
* Shapurji Saklatvala - Indian-born radical who played leading role in movement
47
# Immigration Policies & Attitudes Towards Minority Ethnic Groups 1918-39
The International African Service Bureau (IASB)
* Established newspaper - International African Opinion
* Encouraged readers to lobby MPs for Black rights
* Specifically lobbied for equal access to healthcare facilities
48
# Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration
Impact of WWII
* Series of important consequences for gov policy, Nritish economy, and society
* Many came to GB to fight in armed forces and work
* Despote discrimination, many decided to remain in GB
49
# Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration
'New Commonwealth' Immigration 1945-1958
* Old Commonwealth - former Empire countries with predominantly white population (Australia, NZ, Canada)
* New Commonwealth - fromer Empire countries with predominantly Black or Asian population (Jamaica, Ghana, India)
50
# Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration
Causes of mass immigration
* Serious labour shortage post-war - opportunity for immigrants from across the Empire to earn more money than they could in home countries
* Gov policy made it easy for imperial subjects to gain entry to Britain
* British Nationality Act 1948 - new legal right for all people in British colonies to enter UK
51
# Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration
HMT Empire Windrush
* Arrived in June 1948
* Brought 492 people from Jamaica to GB
* Celebrated as beginning of mass migration
52
# Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration
Impact of Mass Migration 1948-1958
* Changed population of GB - Asian & Caribbean communities grew from 10Ks to 100Ks
* Neither Labour nor Cons. govs welcomed noew immigration - despite passage of 1948 BNA
* PMs Attlee & Churchill actively tried to discourage immigration from New Commonwealth - put pressure on Caribbean, African, and Asian govs to restrict passport availability
* Labour & Cons. govs both considered policies such as limits on 'coloured' immigration and repatriation
53
# Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration
Quotas on employment of immigrants from New Commonwealth
* DUring 50s, unions & management in some businesses (eg. Ford Dagenham, Tate & Lyle) enforced quota system - 95% of jobs had to go to white people
* Similar agreement in public transport
* 1955 - white transport workers went on strike due to breach of 95% rule in Wolverhampton
54
# Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration
White Violence
* Mass immigration accompanied by white violence against new immigrants
* Many resented what they perceived as pressure on local facilities such as housing, schools, and healthcare provision
* Believed it was result of influx
55
# Impact of WWII and New Commonwealth Immigration
Race Riots 1958
* August Bank Holiday - series of racial attacks in various cities from Nottingham to Notting Hill
* Initial TV coverage showed attacks on police & firefighters trying to douse burning buildings - drew attention to conflict, may have prompted further disturbances
* Subsequent enquiry - tensions largely result of cultural differences and pressure on availability of accomodation
* Immigration into already overcrowded/deprived areas caused problems
56
# Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
Racial Controversy
* Continued immigration from New Commonwealth
* Many whites believed this threatened jobs and put undue pressure on housing and social sevices
* Many immigrants and descendants faced discrimination & prejudice
* Racial tensions periodically flared into violence - provoked backlash from both sides
* Controversy compounded by gov legislation which restricted further immigration but guaranteed legal rights to those already here
57
# Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
1962 Commonwealth Immigration Act
Limited immigration by making it dependent on:
* Would-be immigrants had a job to go to
* Possessing particular skills (eg. in medicine)
* Being dependants of people already here (eg. children)
58
# Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
Racial Tensions
* Smethwick by-election 1964 - Cons. candidate adopted overtly racist campaign
* Immigrants from NC continued to face discrimination (and sometimes attacks) - despite legislation to prevent this
* Worsened in 1968 when thousands of Asian citizens were expelled from Kenya and sought sanctuary in UK, as was their legal right
59
# Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
Kenyan Asian people
* By spring 1968 - 2K Kenyan Asians arriving in GB each moth
* Known to be hard-working and entrepeneurial - many white Britons still showed animosity
* Home Sec. Callaghan acknowledged concerns with 1968 Commonwealth Immigration Act
60
# Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
Commonwealth Immigration Act 1968
* Tightened immigration rules
* Restricted NC immigration to 1500 per year
* Left 200K Kenyan Asians stateless
* Critics saw it as divisive and unfair
* Opinion polls showed over 72% of respondents in support
61
# Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
'Rivers of Blood' Speech
* Despite 1968 CIA, continued immigration led to white backlash
* Shadow Defence Secretary Enoch Powell made notorious 'Rivers of Blood' speech in Brmingham, April 1968
* Argued that, to prevent race war, 'coloured' immigrants should be encouraged to repatriate
* Powell dismisssed from his position as shadow minister
* Speech resonated with many - 1K London dockers marched in support
62
# Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
Race Relations Acts 1965 & 1968
Together:
* Outlawed racial discrimination in public places
* Outlawed incitement to racial hatred
* Set up Race Relations Board to investigate allegations of racial discrimination
* Set up Community Relations Commission to promote co-operation between different ethnic groups
63
# Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
Race Relations Act 1976
* Outlawed indirect discrimination - where discrimination was hidden
* eg. Job interviewee not hired because he was black, but not being informed this was the case
* Created Commission for Racial Equality to police work against discrimination
64
# Policies on Race Relations & Immigration 1958-1979
White Backlash in the 1970s
* Saw emergence of extreme right-wing party - National Front
* Briefly enjoyed electoral success - leader Martin Webster polled 16% of vote in West Bromwich by-election in May 1973
* Held noisy, provocative demonstrations which attracted skinheads and other disaffected young people
* More opposed them in Anti-Nazi League & Rock Against Racism movement, which was supported by many popular musicians of the day
