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History - Britain > Creating A Welfare State 1918-1979 > Flashcards

Creating A Welfare State 1918-1979 Flashcards

1
Q

The Extent and Nature of Social Welfare Provision 1918-1939

Welfare provision in 1918

A
  • Based primarily on the workhouse
  • Old age pensions, unemployment, sickness benefits had been introduced to limited degree
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2
Q

The Extent and Nature of Social Welfare Provision 1918-1939

Workhouses

A
  • Principal form of social service for elderly, sick, and destitute
  • Most had hospitals attached
  • Abolished by Local Government Act of 1929
  • Closed by 1930
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3
Q

The Extent and Nature of Social Welfare Provision 1918-1939

Unemployment Insurance Acts of 1920 & 1921

A

Extended unemployment insurance to cover most workers for 15 weeks

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4
Q

The Extent and Nature of Social Welfare Provision 1918-1939

Justification for Unemployment Insurance Acts of 1920 & 1921

A
  • Need to support unprecedentedly high levels of unemployment
  • Fears that widespread poverty may lead to revolution like in Russia in 1917
  • Popular desire to support former servicemen and their families
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5
Q

The Extent and Nature of Social Welfare Provision 1918-1939

Retrenchments in Welfare Provision in the 1930s

A
  • Onset of Great Depression = more demand on welfare provision
  • Welfare less affordable due to reduced tax revenue (more workers unemployed) = vicious cycle
  • Aim of successive governments was to retrench in line with provision of May Report of 1931
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6
Q

The Extent and Nature of Social Welfare Provision 1918-1939

National Economy Act 1931

A
  • Significantly reduced entitlement to & provision of benefits
  • Introduced means test for those whose insurance entitlement had run out
  • Placed 6 moth cap, after which benefits had to be reapplied for
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7
Q

The Extent and Nature of Social Welfare Provision 1918-1939

Means Test

A
  • Took all household income into consideration when assessing benefit - included child’s income & elderly pension
  • Bitterly resented as humiliating and unfair
  • Attracted official & unofficial snoopers who checked on claimants to ensure destitution
  • Any suspected of abusing the system could have benefits cancelled
  • 1932 National Hunger March = 3000 unemployed men walked to London to demand end to means test & start of job provision
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8
Q

The Extent and Nature of Social Welfare Provision 1918-1939

Hunger Marches

A
  • Many joined these walks from their homes, usually in depressed areas, to London to publicise their plight
  • 1936 Jarrow March: hundreds marched to London, but their benefits were cut during the journey due to not registering for work
  • Jarrow = impoverished shipbuilding town in North-East
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9
Q

The Impact of War, the Labour gov., and Consensus 1939-1964

The Impact of WWII

A
  • State increasingly took responsibility for people’s welfare during war - organisation of evacuations, rationing, ensuring health
  • Increasing agreement that there should be no return to pre-war poverty
  • 1942 Beveridge Report = blueprint for post-war social welfare
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10
Q

The Impact of War, the Labour gov., and Consensus 1939-1964

The Beveridge Report

A
  • Asserted 5 giants that needed to be overcome if social conditions were to improve
  • 5 Giants = squalor, ignorance, want, idleness, disease
  • Advocated universal benefits & end to means test
  • Beveridge argued for flat rate of contributions from all wage earners to pay for comprehensive welfare benefits - covering unemployment, sickness, pensions, and family based benefits
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11
Q

The Impact of War, the Labour gov., and Consensus 1939-1964

The work of the Labour Government 1945-1951

A
  • Credited with creation of modern Welfare State
  • Widespread new provisions led to idea that state would care for citizens ‘from the cradle to the grave’
  • Crucial factor with the post-war consensus
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12
Q

The Impact of War, the Labour gov., and Consensus 1939-1964

Family Allowances Act 1945

A
  • Created monetary child benefits for the first time
  • Payable to the mother, not the father - non-working mothers gained income independent of their husbands
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13
Q

The Impact of War, the Labour gov., and Consensus 1939-1964

The National Insurance Act 1946

A
  • Made unemployment benefits and sickness benefits available to all workers
  • Paid state pension to all men over 65 and all women over 60
  • £1 for single people and £1.75 for married couples
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14
Q

The Impact of War, the Labour gov., and Consensus 1939-1964

The Industrial Injuries Act 1946

A

Gave workers the right to be compensated by the Ministry of National Insurance for accidents and injuries in the workplace

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15
Q

The Impact of War, the Labour gov., and Consensus 1939-1964

The National Assistance Act 1948

A
  • Offered welfare benefits to those who were not covered by National Insurance
  • The homeless, the disabled, unmarried mothers, and pensioners living in poverty were able to claim
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16
Q

The Impact of War, the Labour gov., and Consensus 1939-1964

Creation of the National Health Service 1948

A

NHS offered free and comprehensive health cover for all, funded from compulsory National Insurance scheme taken directly from wages

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17
Q

The Impact of War, the Labour gov., and Consensus 1939-1964

The Welfare Consensus 1939-1964

A
  • Broad agreement between major parties over role of state and provision of welfare
  • Cons. OMs 1951-1964 supported maintenance of welfare provision
  • Some members of Cons. party (eg. Treasury minister Enoch Powell) advocated cuts in welfare, but were in a minority
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18
Q

The Impact of War, the Labour gov., and Consensus 1939-1964

PM Macmillan (1957-1964) on Welfare

A
  • Agreed there should be not return to pre-war poverty
  • Believed wealthier classes had moral responsibility to help provide for those in poverty
  • Understood that any cuts to welfare would be unpopular and lose electoral support
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19
Q

Reasons for Increasing Challenges to state welfare provision 1964-1979

The New Right

A
  • Political consensus over welfare provision began to break down in early 1970s
  • NR suppoerters argued social welfare trapped people in dependency culture
  • Argued growing welfare bills were diverting resources from economic growth - undermining GB’s long-term economic performance
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20
Q

Reasons for Increasing Challenges to state welfare provision 1964-1979

Welfare provision 1964-1979

A
  • Labour gov 1964-1970 refused to cut welfare - increased tax to pay for it
  • Cons. gov 1970-1974 appeared equally committed to it
  • 1970 Family Income Supplement: for poorer families, offered means tested rebates
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21
Q

Reasons for Increasing Challenges to state welfare provision 1964-1979

The National Insurance Act 1970

A
  • Introduced generous package of welfare benefits - extended welfare
  • Gave pension rights to 100K who had not been covered by 1948 National Assistance Act
  • Introduced attendance allowance for people who needed long-term care at home
  • Established invalidity benefit for disabled people
  • Increased child allowance given to mothers
  • Made rent subsidies available for low-income families in private accomodation
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22
Q

Reasons for Increasing Challenges to state welfare provision 1964-1979

Challenges to welfare provision

A
  • Many felt it was wrong for taxpayers to pay for welfare benefits
  • Many felt it was inefficient way of spending money due to no tangible benefits - economic problems worsened, they felt the gov should retrench
  • Many argued welfare caused dependency - people could no longer help themselves, eg. by finding work
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23
Q

Reasons for Increasing Challenges to state welfare provision 1964-1979

Increased Costs

A
  • As part of terms of 1976 IMF loan, Labour gov had to retrench and cut welfare budget
  • Emerging consensus that GB could no longer afford to provide welfare ‘from the cradle to the grave’
  • Former consensus replaced by a new one of reduced welfare provision
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24
Q

Reasons for Increasing Challenges to state welfare provision 1964-1979

Changing Attitudes

A
  • Many younger people less inclined to endorse collectivist thinking that emerged from GD & WWII - supported policies favouring the individual, not the community
  • Many criticised welfare claimants as ‘scroungers’ irrespective of individual circumstances
  • ‘Aspirational’ working class - goals were to increase standard of living, buying own homes, and enjoying consumerism - little sympathy for policies that meant higher taxes
  • When Thatcher became Cons. leader in 1975, she embraced NR thinking onwelfare - hoping to appeal to aspirational voters
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25
Q

Health Provision 1918-1945

Ministry of Health

A
  • Established in 1919
  • Responsible for co-ordinating health at a regional level and administering funds raised by National Health Insurance scheme
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26
Q

Health Provision 1918-1945

Local Government Act 1929

A
  • Introduced by Minister of Health Neville Chamberlain - most important medical reform of 1920s
  • Passed responsibility for Poor Law hospitals to local authorities
  • Made local authorities also responsible for areas such as running of venereal disease clinics, child welfare, dentistry, schools’ medical services, and school meals
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27
Q

Health Provision 1918-1945

Hospitals

A
  • Various forms of hospital provision in inter-war period
  • Public infirmaries managed by local authorities
  • Charitable hospitals which relied on public subscriptions
  • Specialist teaching hospitals
  • Private hospitals
  • Sickness insurance schemes did not normally fund hospital treatment for dependants (eg. wives, children)
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28
Q

Health Provision 1918-1945

GPs

A
  • Most charged for diagnosis and treatment - some treated poorer patients for free
  • Many, known as ‘panel’ doctors, trated those covered by National Insurance schemes - only covered employee for treatments, not his family
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29
Q

Health Provision 1918-1945

Healthcare in the Depression

A
  • Less than half were insured against illness in 1929
  • The uninsured were supposed to rely on private health insurance - if they could afford it
  • Traditional remedies and medicines sold over the counter were common
  • In most deprived parts of GB (eg. Tyneside), poor livind conditions led to higher incidences of illness and premature death
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30
Q

Health Provision 1918-1945

Healthcare by 1939

A
  • 1929-1939: Public health seemed to be improving
  • Infant Mortality Rate in England & Wales dropped from 14.3/1000 1906-1910 to 12/1000 1936-1938
  • Different picture in poorer areas - during 20s & 30s, maternal mortality rates were 50% higher in low income groups than in middle class
  • By 1939, Ministry of Helath was discussing plans for regional health boards centrally managed by gov
  • Medical Journal ‘The Lancet’ advocated for national system of healthcare
  • It would take WWII to create consensus that led to the NHS
31
Q

Health Provision 1918-1945

The Emergency Medical Service

A
  • Founded in 1939 to provide first aid and casualty clearing stations for those wounded in air raids
  • Allowwed government to dictate provision in all hospitals
  • Resulted in creation of national system
  • Gov planners adopted this as basis for plans for post-war healthcare system
32
Q

Creation and Impact of the NHS 1945-1979

The National Health Service Act 1946

A
  • Established NHS on certain principles
  • Healthcare would be available to all
  • Healthcare would be free at point of delivery or when treatment was necessary - NHS would be paid for by direct taxation, not insurance
  • All local authority, voluntary, and private hospitals were merged into one unified sytem
  • NHS hospitals would be run by regional hospital boards managed by executive committees - local health authorities provide services eg. ambulances, vaccinations, community nursing
33
Q

Creation and Impact of the NHS 1945-1979

What would the NHS offer?

A
  • Curative & preventative care
  • Mental & physical healthcare
  • Hospital care, general practice surgeries, dental care, and other specialist services such as opticians
34
Q

Creation and Impact of the NHS 1945-1979

Co-operation of doctors

A
  • Most categories of healthcare professionals accepted NHS
  • Bevan struggled to get co-operation of doctors - had to compromise for their support
  • Consultants/specialist doctors who worked on referrals were allowed to remain private, and were allocated beds in hospitals for their patients
  • GPs continued to be self-employed
  • Regional health boards were dominated by consultants
35
Q

Creation and Impact of the NHS 1945-1979

Provision

A
  • Creation of NHS did not immediately lead to equal provision across the country
  • NHS inherited existing infrastructure - distributed unequally
36
Q

Creation and Impact of the NHS 1945-1979

The Development of the NHS 1951-1979

A
  • Macmillan’s Cons. gov introduced the Hospital Plan in 1962
  • Sir Keith Joseph, Cons. Secretary of State for Social Services, introduced NHS Reorganisation Act in 1973
  • Dr David Owen, Labour Minister of State for Health, established Resource Allocation Working Party
37
Q

Creation and Impact of the NHS 1945-1979

1962 Hospital Plan

A
  • Creation of 90 new hospitals
  • Redesign and modernisation of 134 hospitals
  • Refurbushment of 356 hospitals
38
Q

Creation and Impact of the NHS 1945-1979

1973 NHS Reorganisation Act

A
  • Introduced new management structure to the NHS
  • Led to significant growth in management costs 1974-1979
39
Q

Creation and Impact of the NHS 1945-1979

Resource Allocation Working Party

A

Identified areas of health deprivation, allocating additional resources to neediest areas

40
Q

Creation and Impact of the NHS 1945-1979

Impact of the NHS

A
  • Improvement in healthcare - reductions in all categories of disease, except those associated with old age
  • Facilitated medical advances - life-threatening illnesses such as cancer and heart disease had much better recovery rates
  • Incidences of infant mortality and post-natal complications significantly reduced
  • IMR = 30/1000 in 1950 -> 10/1000 by 1980 -> 3.8/1000 in 2016
41
Q

Creation and Impact of the NHS 1945-1979

NHS Spending

A
  • Spending on NHS increased under both Labour & Cons Govs
  • 1955-56: 2.9% of GDP
  • 1975-76: 4.9% of GDP
42
Q

The Challenge of Medical Advances 1945-1979

Expansion of Treatments 1948-1964

A
  • Demand for NHS services grew rapidly from 1948
  • Critics - it would encourage people to seek medical advice for flimsy reasons
  • Millions of glasses and false teeth were prescribed - shows that many could not afford such items before
43
Q

The Challenge of Medical Advances 1945-1979

Prescriptions and Drugs

A
  • September 1948: number of prescriptions rose to 13.6M from 6.8M in the previous June
  • 1949-1964: more medicines became available = increasing NHS drug costs
  • NHS spent 250% more on drugs in 1964 than in 1951
  • Vaccinations increased scope of NHS provision - pre-1939, smallpox was the only routine vaccine. By 1964, vaccines against TB, diptheria, polio, tetanus, and whooping cough were universally available
44
Q

The Challenge of Medical Advances 1945-1979

Challenges facing the NHS: Infrastructure

A
  • 1948-1960: little investment in modernising NHS hospitals, and little done to tackle inequalities in provision
  • During 60s & 70s, gov attempts to remedy this were only partly successful
  • Increasing demand on NHS resources as new treatments developed, leading to rising expectations and growing costs
  • Gov spent less on health than other European countries
45
Q

The Challenge of Medical Advances 1945-1979

Challenges facing the NHS: Treatment & Staffing

A
  • Increasingly high-tech medical equipment led to new challenges
  • Numbers of consultants and nursing staff increased by 66% 1964-1979
  • Technical staff increased by 300%
  • NHS staffing increased from 407K in 1951 to 1M in 1979
46
Q

The Challenge of Medical Advances 1945-1979

Challenges facing the NHS: Ageing population

A
  • As the population aged, demands on the NHS increased
  • NHS performed 24K hip replacements in 1979
47
Q

The Challenge of Medical Advances 1945-1979

Challenges facing the NHS: Major Surgery

A
  • Advances in surgery increased demand for NHS services
  • 1964-1979: important advances in ordgan surgery such as heart bypasses and organ transplants
  • 1979: NHS performed 800 kidney transplants and 5K heart bypasses
48
Q

The Challenge of Medical Advances 1945-1979

Crisis in the NHS?

A
  • Growing demand for NHS services due to medical advances and the ageing population
  • Healthcare provision remained unever across the country & across different branches of medicine - in particular, problems in mental health care
  • By late 70s - no longer assumed that economic growth would continue and support increasing spending on healthcare
  • NHS ultimately protected by widespread consesnus that it was an indispensable part of British life
49
Q

Education policy, 1918-1943, and the 1944 Education (Butler) Act

Education before 1918

A
  • Pre-1918 - provided by Local Education Authorities, variable provision
  • 1918 Education Act - transferred funding from LEAs to central government
  • Hoped that standardised resourcing and pay/conditions for teachers would improve school standards
50
Q

Education policy, 1918-1943, and the 1944 Education (Butler) Act

Hadow Committee 1926

A

Highlighted variable quality of provision. Recommended:
* Abolition of elementary schools, with division into primary and secondary - transferring at age 11
* Raising of school leaving age to 15

51
Q

Education policy, 1918-1943, and the 1944 Education (Butler) Act

Hadow Committee 1926: Failures

A
  • Not adopted because of cost and local authorities retaining responsibility for education - some provided elementaries of variable quality
  • Class sizes could be huge - here, the only form of learning was learning by rote
  • Elementary was free
  • Some authorities provided secondary or technical schools to which children transferred at 11 - variable quality of education
52
Q

Education policy, 1918-1943, and the 1944 Education (Butler) Act

Secondary Education

A
  • Generally preserve of middle class children
  • 1918-1944: education compulsory to age 14
  • By WWII, only 13% of WC kids aged 13+ were in school
  • Bright WC kids could get scholarships for grammars
53
Q

Education policy, 1918-1943, and the 1944 Education (Butler) Act

Impact of WWII

A
  • Beveridge Report of 1942 - identified ignorance as one of the great ‘evils’ that affected Britain
  • Many branches of armed services had to teach basic literacy & numeracy to lower ranks
54
Q

Education policy, 1918-1943, and the 1944 Education (Butler) Act

Butler Act, 1944

A
  • Made access to secondary education possible for less wealthy kids
  • State secondaries would no longer charge fees
  • Cost of mass education pait for by general taxation
  • Compulsory education was extended to age 15
  • All WC kids had free/compulsory secondary education
55
Q

Education policy, 1918-1943, and the 1944 Education (Butler) Act

Tripartite System

A
  • Grammar schools - provide academic curriculum for all kids who could pass 11+, also to provide route into greater opportunities for WC kids
  • Secondary Moderns - tended to educate majority of lower MC and WC kids - generally fewer resources and less well-qualified teachers, 75% of kids in post-war
  • Technical Schools - intended to educate MC for life in scientific or engineering work - few actually built due to cost - 3% of secondary school students
56
Q

The Development of Comprehensive Education to 1979

Problems with the Butler Act

A
  • Many saw tripartite system as socially divisive
  • Grammars received most resources, SMs underfunded w/ unsatisfactory curriculum
  • Grammars took 20-25% of the most able students, rest went to SMs or TSs
  • Crowther Report - 80% of SMs deficient
  • Few TSs ever built - 3% of pupils at height, mostly male
57
Q

The Development of Comprehensive Education to 1979

Comprehensive Schools

A
  • Critics hoped for fullly comp. schools - kids of all classes at same school, no 11+
  • Comps intended to offer ‘grammar schools for all’ (Harold Wilson)
58
Q

The Development of Comprehensive Education to 1979

Early Comprehensives in the 1950s

A
  • 1950s: inc. in # of comps. in mainly Labour local authorities
  • First purpose-built comp opened at Kidbrooke in 1954
59
Q

The Development of Comprehensive Education to 1979

Reports into Edcuation Provision

A
  • 1959 & 1963: Cons. gov comissioned 2 reports
  • Added weight to argument that best way to ensure equality of educational opportunity was to develop comprehensive schooling
60
Q

The Development of Comprehensive Education to 1979

The Crowther Report 1959

A

Recommended:
* Raising school leaving age to 16
* Creating country colleges for post-16 education & more tech colleges
* Developing more 6th form courses

61
Q

The Development of Comprehensive Education to 1979

The Newsom Report 1963: ‘Half our Future’

A
  • 50% of children receiving comparatively poor educational provision
  • Found failings in educational provision, esp. in poorer areas
  • Some inner city schools had high teacher turnover - disadvantaged students had little continuity
  • Schools should develop curricula suitable for all pupils
  • Links between deprivation & poor attainment should be investigate more
62
Q

The Development of Comprehensive Education to 1979

The Development of Comprehensive School 1964-1979

A
  • Labour gov 1964-1970 committed to development of comps - recognised they couldn’t force LEAs to adopt them
  • Circular 10/65: encouraged them to do so, through financial pressure
  • Most Leas abolished selection and created comps due to this
63
Q

The Development of Comprehensive Education to 1979

Criticisms of Comprehensives

A
  • Some felt educational standards were slipping
  • Black Papers: Cons. educationalists criticised ‘progressive education’
  • ‘Yellow Book’ 1976 - gov sponsored, lamented standards and behaviour in schools, criticised lack of accountability
  • PM Callaghan speech at Ruskin College - advocated nat. curriculum, greater accountability
64
Q

The Growth and Social Impact of University Education 1918-1979

Accessibility in the inter-war period

A
  • Oxbridge remained largely for the privileged, but ~20 provincial unis took on MC & WC
  • Funded through grants/scholarships offered by LEAs & Charities
  • Another route, esp. for bright WC, was gov funded teacher-training grants
  • Recipients known as Recognised Students in Training - agreed to follow degree w/ postgrad teacher training w/ commitment to teaching after
65
Q

The Growth and Social Impact of University Education 1918-1979

Percy Report 1945

A

Recommended:
* Science & engineering courses should be further developed
* Unis be dramatically expanded to cater for increase in students due to Butler Act

66
Q

The Growth and Social Impact of University Education 1918-1979

Barlow Report 1946

A
  • Too few scientists and engineering students to fulfil future positions - eg. in industry and research
  • Argued for gov-funded uni expansion
67
Q

The Growth and Social Impact of University Education 1918-1979

Impact of Percy & Barlow Reports

A
  • By 1960s still too few science courses - many unis prioritised arts
  • Widely felt that # of science and tech courses insufficient to meet future need
68
Q

The Growth and Social Impact of University Education 1918-1979

Robbins Report 1963

A
  • Warned Britain was being overtaken by other countries in terms of uni performance
  • Recommended a goal of 5x more student places by 1980
69
Q

The Growth and Social Impact of University Education 1918-1979

University Expansion in 1960s & 1970s

A
  • Both Labour & Cons supporters agreed w/ expansion of uni provision & that gov should pay for tuition and student grants
  • 1960s saw expansion of unis - eg. opening of UEA in 1963 and creation of 32 polytechnics focusing on scientific subjects and vocational courses
  • Teacher training & art colleges upgraded
  • # of students grew - taking advantage of generous financing
70
Q

The Growth and Social Impact of University Education 1918-1979

The Open University

A
  • Opene in 1971
  • Based almost exclusively on distance learning - people could study degrees at home
71
Q

The Growth and Social Impact of University Education 1918-1979

Universities in the 1970s

A
  • Both Cons & Labour cut uni funding due to retrenchment policies
  • # of uni students continued to grow - partly due to rising population, rising expectations, and continued grants/tuition fees
72
Q

The Growth and Social Impact of University Education 1918-1979

Statistics of First Degrees awarded in UK

A
  • 1920: ~4K
  • 1950: ~17K
  • 1970: ~51K
73
Q

The Growth and Social Impact of University Education 1918-1979

Issues in looking at statistics of first degrees awarded

A

Don’t show:
* Total numbers who took first degree and failed
* Drop out numbers
* Those taking postgrad study
Nevertheless show significant increase in numbers of students earning degrees

74
Q

The Growth and Social Impact of University Education 1918-1979

Impact of Extension of University Education

A
  • Dramatic impact on social mobility
  • Opened up professions to bright students who may not have had opportunity to study - extended opportunity for more to rise beyond their background
  • Huge cost - lead to retrenchment in 1980s

History - Britain (5 decks)

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