Society and Culture in Change

Question 1

What are some 1920s immigration legislation? (1917-33) (4)

Answer 1

-The 1917 Immigration act created a literacy qualification for anyone over 16 and listed undesirables, such as homosexuals, criminals and disabled
-The 1921 Emergency Quota act set a per count limit of 3% of people from that country living in the US in the 1910 census
-The 1924 Johnson Reed immigration act changed the limit to 2% of the 1890 census (beneficial to northern europeans), and in July 1927 a 150,000 limit based on the 1920 census
-The 1929 National origins formula confirmed the 150,000 limit, and banned asian immigration

Question 2

What were some causes of anti immigration legislation in the 1920s (1917-33) (6)

Answer 2

-The Immigration Restriction league was set up in 1894 to campaign against immigration
-The Dillingham commission concluded in 1911 that the new wave of southern/eastern European immigrants posed a serious threat to US society
-Following WW1, Americans no longer wanted Europe’s problems on its doorsteps
-WASP’s resented the new wave of immigrants, and the lack of assimilation
-Working class Americans resented the competition for housing/jobs
-The red scare, anarchist scares and the Sacco and Vanzetti case made people fear the wave of eastern European immigrants

Question 3

What effects did immigration have on America during the 1920s (1917-33) (9)

Answer 3

-America was referred to as a melting pot, due to the variety of nationalities
-However the different groups failed to assimilate, and many lived in their own communities (little Italy)
-Immigrants got the worst jobs, living conditions and resentment

-Focus of 1920s legislation was restricting immigration (isolationism)
-Many ethnic people got in to politics to give their people a voice (La Guardia = NYC mayor)
-Immigrants proved a strong democrat voter base in the depression

-Immigrants allowed production to expand, by providing low wage work
-Most workers in fords factories were low wage eastern European immigrants
-Immigration rose from latin/south America, to fill positions in agriculture and mining

Question 4

How did the new deal impact immigration (1933-45) (8)

Answer 4

-Immigration numbers were at its lowest since records began
-More immigrants were able to go into politics and give their people a voice
-Immigrants proved a heavy democrat voter base
-Focus on recovering the economy meant there was little effort to restrict immigration

-You had to be a citizen to be able to be impacted by the new deal
-Immigrants frequently excluded from welfare programs of the new deal
-Immigrants pushed into poverty and either were heavily fired or got low paid work
-1/2 of the 600,000 Mexican immigrants deported

Question 5

How did WW2 impact immigrants (1933-45) (5,4)

Answer 5

-War led to increased urban populations, and increased political representation
-Increased industrial demand benefitted immigrant workers
-Increase in patriotism decreased resentment overall, and increased assimilation
-100,000 Jewish people took refuge in America
-Chinese exclusion act repealed in 1943 leading to increased Chinese immigration

-120,000 Japanese immigrants placed in internment ‘relocation’ camps
-German, Italian, Jewish and Japanese immigrants treated badly
-Most Americans (68%) didn’t want to help with the influx of Jewish immigrants
-War aroused intense nationalism and anti immigration sentiment

Question 6

What was some 1950s immigration legislation? (1945-61) (3)

Answer 6

-1952 Immigration and nationality act retained the quota system and 150,000 limit, showing attitudes hadn’t fully changed, although it allowed for 100,000 Asians
-1953 Refugee relief act allowed for the refugee of 214,000 from Europe outside the quota system escaping communism
-1957 Refugee escapee act extended refugee legislation to anyone escaping communism

Question 7

What was operation wetback? (1945-61) (7)

Answer 7

-Operation Wetback was launched in 1954 as a plan to reduce illegal Mexican immigration with teams processing, locating and deporting illegal immigrants
-Within the first year, 1,000,000 illegal Mexicans had been deported

-However, in the long run Operation wetback failed, and was ended in 1964, because:
-Discontent at the scheme putting Mexicans in random parts of Mexico
-Post war boom needing immigrant workers
-The US realised stopping illegal immigration was impossible
-Businesses helping illegal immigrants, in demand for cheap exploitable labour
-End of the second red scare decreased tensions

Question 8

What was some 1940s immigration legislation (1945-61) (2)

Answer 8

-The 1940 Alien registration act created the green card system as a wartime measure, intending all immigrants to have to register as US citizens
-The 1948 displaced persons act allowed for 415,000 Europeans displaced by WW2 to come to the US, over 4 years within the quota

Question 9

What was the Bracero programme, and why did it fail? (1945-61) (6)

Answer 9

-The Bracero programme was a programme which gave Mexicans short term contracts to legally work in the US with accommodation, wages etc, in return for stricter border control and the return of illegal immigrants
-Peaked in 1956 with 456,000 Mexicans under the scheme

-However, in the long run the scheme failed:
-The terms were heavily disregarded by American employers
-The programme wasn’t large enough for all, so illegal immigration continued
-The Mexican government wanted harder border control that the Americans gave
-The Mexican labour force fell

Question 10

How did WW2, the cold war and Kennedy affect immigration and attitudes? (1945-61) (2,2,2,1)

Answer 10

-WW2 led to some assimilation as immigrants moved into cities, leading to decreased resentment
-However the intense nationalism which rose was negatively put upon certain immigrants, such as Japanese, German etc (120,000 Japanese put in internment camps)

-The cold war led to a decrease in resentment towards immigration, since Americans realised their position as a world superpower
-The second red scare did lead to increased fears of immigrants

-The cold war led to increased immigration since people displaced by war or communism came to the US (200,000 Cubans fled following the 1959 Cuban revolution)
-US legislation aided refugees immigrating to the US

-In 1958, JFK wrote ‘A nation of immigrants’ , a pro-immigration book which would’ve had a sway on opinion

Question 11

How and why did immigration change in the 60s (1961-68) (8)

Answer 11

-Immigration grew in overall mass (1924-65 = 5.8m, 1965-95 = 15.5m)
-Asian immigration quadrupled from 1965-70
-The largest country in terms of immigrants was Mexicans (1965-90 = 4.3m)
-More Asian, Latin American and African immigration
-European immigration fell as a proportion of total immigration (1951-65 = 50% Europeans, 7% Asians. 1965-90 = 15% European, 33% Asian)

-Legislation and the abolition of the quota system led to less restrictions on Asian, Latin American immigration
-Vietnam war and other wars led to increased Asians fleeing
-The US accepted its role as a world superpower, and therefore was open to more immigrants

Question 12

What was some 1960s immigration legislation (1961-68) (1,1,4,2,1)

Answer 12

-In 1961 14,000 Chinese people were allowed into the US

-In 1964 the Bracero programme was ended

-1965 Immigration and naturalization act (Hart-Cellar act)
-Abolished the previous quota system based on national origin
-Created a new system based on family reunification and attracting skilled labour
-Kept a 170,000 annual country limit

-The 1966 Cuban adjustment act allowed any Cuban immigrants following 1959 to be granted citizenship
-Gained citizenship for the 200,000, increasing Cuban representation in politics

-The 1968 Armed forces naturalization act allowed anyone who had fought for the USA in any war to become a US citizen

Question 13

How did attitudes to immigration change in the 1960s (1961-68) (6)

Answer 13

-Civil rights movement lead to a decrease in racial judgement overall
-People cared less about where people came from, and more about who
-Americans were more accepting of people escaping communism/conflict
-Resentment to illegal Hispanic immigration remained
-Politicians more outspoken on the issue
-70% in favour of the Hart-Cellar act

Question 14

What was some 70s immigration legislation (1968-80) (3)

Answer 14

-The 1975 Indochinese migration and assistance act aided people fleeing the Vietnam war to come to the US
-In 1976, the Immigration and Naturalization act was expanded to include the western hemisphere for the first time, creating a 20,000 annual limit
-1980 Refugee act allowed for 50,000 refugees to come to the US annually, and 5,000 within the US to apply for political asylum

Question 15

Why did immigrants come to America in the 70s, and why was this resented (1968-80) (4,6)

Answer 15

-Most immigration was from Asia, due to the Vietnam war
-Employers, happy to have cheap exploitable labour, aided illegal immigration
-People used to no numerical limits still wanted to come
-In 1980, following job/house shortages, the Cuban government allowed people to come

-Political debates over the cost of policing immigration brought the debate to the public
-Conservatives thought immigrants destroyed culture, not adding to it
-70s economic turmoil blamed on immigrants and black people
-People felt competition for jobs with increasing Mexican employment
-People felt high taxes were going to immigrant welfare payments
-Arrival of Cuban immigrants handled poorly

Question 16

What factors influenced public reactions to immigration (1968-80) (2,2,2,2)

Answer 16

Number of immigrants
-Most of the 1920s legislation was focused on restricting the increasing numbers of immigration
-By the 60s, the high number of immigrants meant people had gotten used to them

Where the immigrants came from
-People in the 20s resented the rise in southern/eastern European immigration
-People resented Hispanic immigrants throughout, viewing them as inferior and illegal

Communism
-People wanted to restrict immigration during the first red scare, fearing communist infiltrators
-People were more sympathetic to immigrants in the 50s, wanting to help them escape communism

Social attitudes
-Many saw southern/eastern Europeans as inferior, and unable to assimilate
-Following the US’ entry into WW2, Japanese, German and Italians were treated with resentment

Question 17

What changes had women experienced before/straight after WW1 (1917-33) (4,4)

Answer 17

-In 1917, Jeannette Rankin (Montana) became the first women elected to congress
-The national women’s party was founded in 1913
-Campaigns for women’s suffrage picked up speed in the 1910s
-Women picketed outside the Whitehouse and got arrested

-In the night of terror (November 15th, 1917), suffragists were brutalised by prison guards
-6 million women joined industry during WW1, such as automobile, chemical and iron & steel
-All states organised women’s committees, encouraging them to help in the war effort
-13,000 women enlisted for the navy

Question 18

What changes did women experience in the 1920s (1917-33) (8)

Answer 18

-The 19th Amendment, ratified on August 26th 1920, gave women the right to vote
-8 million women voted as a result
-There was a generational gap between ‘old’ and ‘new’ women
-New flappers drunk, smoke, and wore looser clothes
-Young women started increasing claims to their own bodies and partook in sexual liberation
-Margaret Sanger founded the birth control league in 1921
-Women started attending college and unis (however their courses (home economics) were limited)
-Women started desiring both families and careers

Question 19

What were the pros & cons of the position of women in the 1920s (1917-33) (4,4)

Answer 19

-Women in work from 1910-1940 rose from 7,640,000 to 13,007,000
-Increased social freedom (flappers, Sanger’s Birth control league)
-19th Amendment gave women the right to vote
-Women’s Bureau of Labour was set up in 1920, to aid women in work

-Many women didn’t vote, or voted with husbands
-Changes primarily impacted white middle class women
-Gender pay gap + ‘last hired first fired’
-Few black women votes, especially in the south

Question 20

What impact did the New Deal have on women (1933-45) (5,4)

Answer 20

-Women’s jobs (teachers, secretaries) typically less affected than men’s jobs
-Women’s unemployment rose by less than men’s unemployment, female employment rising 24% in the 30s
-Eleanor Roosevelt was a politically active first lady
-ER set up Camp Tera, a camp to teach unemployed women skills
-In 1933, Francis Perkins became the first women to serve in cabinet

-Unskilled women workers fired before men
-Alphabet agencies favoured men - CCC didn’t employ women
-NRA codes allowed for unequal pay, as women typically earned half of what men did
-$1 man = $61c white women = 21c black women

Question 21

How did WW2 impact women (1933-45) (4,4)

Answer 21

-Womens employment during the war rose from 26% to 36%
-Millions of women volunteered in the war effort (3 million volunteered within the red cross)
-60% of people after the war thought that women should stay in employment
-With the 1942 Lanham act, the US government was forced into providing moderate federally funded childcare (ended 1946)

-Women recieved about 60% of what men did
-Many saw work as temporary, and women would return to their traditional roles post war
-Women = 25% of auto workers in war, 7.5% in 1946
-This attitude led to a lack of training by their male supervisors

Question 22

What were some causes for the improvement in womens lives from 1945-61 (1945-61) (4,2,2)

Answer 22

WW2
-Allowed women an opportunity to get into work
-Rules lifted rarely reinstated
-Proved women and men could do the same work
-Many women learned new skills

Economic boom
-Created more jobs for women, especially in white collar work
-Women could enjoy the affluence of suburban living

Attitudes
-Attitudes to married women working loosened
-Many women discovered an appetite to work

Question 23

How did womens lives improve/not improve from 1945-61 (1945-61) (6,5)

Answer 23

-Attitudes towards married women working loosened
-2/3 of people opposed to married women working in 1940 -> 35% in 1960
-percentage of women working rose from 26% in 1940 to 42% in 1970
-Labour saving devices and ready meals freed up womens time to do other things
-Contraceptive pill licensed in 1960
-Number of professional women workers rose 41% from 1940-60

-Women found it hard to study law/medicine
-adverts encouraged women to be housemakers
-Gender pay gap remained
-Some found suburban life boring and inferior
-No female senators, 8/435 house of reps

Question 24

What were the causes/aims and key figures of the womens rights movement (1961-68) (5,5)

Answer 24

-In 1960, women in America were limited in all aspects of life
-Women bore the housework and were legally subject to their husbands
-6% of doctors and 3% of lawyers were women
-Originally the womens rights movement was focused on ending workplace inequality
-More radical women wanted to go further, dismantle the patriachy and set up a women based healthcare

-In 1962, Betty Friedan wrote the Feminist Mystique, a book describing the societal expectations placed on women
-In 1966, Betty Friedan set up the National Organisation for Women, to fight workplace discrimination
-Women like Gloria Steineman used their image and work to bring attention to the movement
-Gloria’s 1971 Ms magazine helped bring greater audiences to the movement, and help them become aware of the struggles
-The womens liberation movement wanted to fight discrimination with a leadered organisation

Question 25

What were some achievements/limitations of the womens right movement (5,5)

Answer 25

-2/3 of all new jobs in the post war boom went to women
-Women began to understand themselves in relation to society
-Civil rights act included a provision on gender discrimination
-Pill allowed women to study/work without pregnancy scares
-Abortion and birth control legalised (1973 Roe vs Wade)

-Poor enforcement of laws by the Equal Employment Opportunity Committee
-Movement divided between conservatives and radicals
-Conservative society still believed in traditional gender roles
-Failure of the Equal Rights Amendment as the public didn’t see its use
-By the 80s, activists burnt out and the movement fragmented

Question 26

What were the methods of the womens rights movement (1961-68) (10)

Answer 26

-In 1966, the National Organisation for Women was founded
-NOW lobbied congress for pro equality laws, and aided women with legal assistance
-Women protested/picketed aggressively
-Issues such as rape and violence were publicised in the media
-They sabotaged newspapers, and put stickers on offensive ads
-Small, local consciousness groups explored topics such as education, life, work
-1970 womens strike for equality
-Women set up rape crisis centres
-In 1973 the National Black Womens Feminist Organisation was founded
-They focused on welfare, childcare, healthcare, and police repression

Question 27

What were some key dates in the womens rights movement (1961-68) (11)

Answer 27

-1866 = The American Equal Rights association is founded, the first of such for US womens suffrage
-1913 = Congressional union organised, which subsequently picketed the white house
-1917 = Jeannette Rankin became the first women elected to congress
-WW1 = many women move into industrial jobs
-1920 = 19th Amendment enfranchises women
-1933 = Frances Perkins becomes the first women in a cabinet, secretary of labor
-WW2 = 7 million women respond and move into work, as unemployment reaches 36% by 1945
-1957 = the number of men and women voting is equal
-1963 = Feminist Mystique lays the work of the modern feminist movement
-1964 = Civil Rights Act bars employment discrimination based on sex
-1992 = $1 men = $0.71 women = $0.65 black women

Question 28

What were the achievements/limitations of womens social/political status in the 1970s (1968-80) (5,4)

Answer 28

+1965 Griswold vs Conneticut gave access to married women for contraception
+1972 Eisenstadt vs Baird gave access to unmarried women for contraception
+1973 Roe vs Wade legalised abortion and federal abortion clinics
-Conservative organisations like the National Right to Life Committee, created in 1965 by the Catholic Church effectively campaigned Roe vs Wade in courts, election and streets
-Tensions over social status within the womens movement led to fragmentation

+Number of women in public offices rose
+1968 = 12 women house of reps, 17 in 1980
-No women in supreme court/senate
-1977 Hyde amendment banned using federal funds for abortion

Question 29

What were the achievements/limitations of the economic status/the ERA for women in the 70s (3,2,2,3)

Answer 29

+Over 2/3 of women college students thought women should work
+Women were entering a wide variety of jobs, for a lot longer
+% of women in workforce = 38% in 1960, 43% in 1970, 52% in 1980
-Despite the 1963 Equal Pay act, womens wages in 1980 were 62% of mens
-66% of adults classed as poor were women, overwhelmingly in low paid jobs

+In 1972, congress voted overwhelmingly for the ERA
+The ERA remained high on the political agenda in the 70s
-Phyllis Schlafly’s 1972 Stop ERA organisation attracted 50,000 members
-Many conservatives agreed with her, that Americans didn’t want abortion, childcare etc
-ERA never obtained assent of 75% of states required for an amendment

Question 30

How did popular culture change from 1917-1933 (1917-33) (11)

Answer 30

-The attention to popular culture was as a result of the disillusion following WW1
-In 1920, 50 million went to the movies, 100 million by 1930 (mostly young people)
-Movies provided a reminder of the American dream (Rudolph Valentino = immigrant actor)
-Many older people felt movies corrupted young Americans, due to forward presenting
-200 cities had censorship boards by 1926
-1930 Hays code forbade films which lowered the moral standards
-Station KDKA was Americas first radio station in 1920, over 500 stations existed by 1923
-In 1920, 0.2% of households had radios, and 50% had them by 1930
-Radios helped homogenise US culture, and were important promoters of consumerism
-Radios led to speakers wielding influence (FDR’s 27 fireside chats)
-Jazz became popular with white audiences, but did little to help race relations

Question 31

How did popular culture change from 1933-45 (1933-45) (10)

Answer 31

-From 1934, the production code administration practically enforced the Hays code
-Social, political, sexual and racial conflict of hollywood movies heavily enforced
-Movies such as Black fury (1934) changed for promoting communist sentiments, for blaming mine owners for a strike
-After Pearl Harbour, movies focused on boosting morale and unity
-Throughout WW2 there were growing fears of communist infiltration into hollywood
-Radio provided cheap, diversified escapism during the depression
-Roosevelts 27 fireside chats helped keep morale of his policies high
-By 1945, 1/2 of Americans recieved their news from the radio
-Edward Murrow became the first broadcast news star, raising sympathy for the British
-Music helped maintain morale during WW2, 250,000 performances to 160 million military personell

Question 32

How did popular culture change from 1945-61 (1945-61) (11)

Answer 32

-2.3% of households had TV’s in 1949, in comparison to almost 90% in 1960
-TV was a favoured leisure activity for over half of Americans in 1960
-TV dinners and ready meals were promoted, as to not waste TV time
-TV provided a united US culture
-Some complained TV led to conformity and consumerism

-In 1952, Eisenhower started running presidential adverts
-The debate rose on whether TV had effects on politics and culture
-20 million people watched the Mccarthy army hearings
-Rise in the power and influence of the media led to the rise in groups aiming to use the media to promote their cause (Civil rights, minority rights etc)
-Movies increasingly represented 1950s conservatism
-Social impact of rock and roll music discussed as divisive

Question 33

How did popular culture change in the years 1961-68 (1961-68) (11)

Answer 33

-TV shows were rarely controversial, sticking to escapism
-TV shows and movies sometimes challenged social norms
-Hollywood was not as afraid to challenge social norms, as well as keep to traditionalism
-Increased coverage of civil rights protests helped catalyse legislation
-Increased coverage of the Vitnam War/protests helped fuel anti-war sentiment
-People now saw the brutality of war (napalm girl, Mai Lai massacre) in their own homes, and didn’t like it
-Some argued the TV’s coverage of the Vietnam war was the most significant factor in the anti-war sentiment
-However others downplayed the media, crediting anti-war sentiment to the events which were occuring rather than how they were portrayed
-Some people thought the war was inevitable, and it was a matter of time before the people found out
-Lyndon B. Johnson valued the opinion of Walter Cronkite, a CBS broadcaster and ‘most trusted man in America’ heavily in ensuring the public were on his side
-Live TV meant it was a lot harder to censor what was going on, wasn’t as easy to shape events

Question 34

How did popular culture change in the years 1968-80 (1968-80) (9)

Answer 34

-TV/film offered both escapism and the exploration of society/politics
-Escapism in films/TV was more popular, however explorations into violence/corruption did well
-CS cancelled shows such as the Beverley Hillbillies were cancelled, amidst growing fears of a link between TV and violence
-TV and Film represented society at the time, women and minorities being allowed more prominent roles
-Roots (1977) was a TV show about Alex Haley’s enslaved family, 100 million people tuning in to watch the last episode
-Many loathed the 60 ‘Blaxploitation films’ published between 1969-1974, glorifying black ghetto violence
-The Vietnam war, Watergate and credibility gap inspired the growth of investigative news
-Broadcast news became more sceptical of the president
-CBS’ news ‘60 minutes’ became the most successful US TV show in history

Question 35

How did popular culture change/stay the same from 1917-80 (1917-80) (6,3)

Answer 35

-Growing censorship due to the red scare
-Radio increased influence/popularity
-Consumerism grew with the rise of adverts
-Movies and TV represented social change
-TV and Radio revolutionised president-media relations
-Coverage following the 60s became more sceptical and unfiltered

-Music, movies and radio remained popular
-People still largely enjoyed escpaism
-Traditional views installed throughout