Socialism Flashcards
How is socialism linked to contradictory outcomes?
On the one hand, it has been tied to what many consider to be the finest aspects of the human condition, such as fraternity, comradeship, altruism, compassion and a dedication to caring for society’s most vulnerable. On the other hand, in places like the eastern bloc, China and Cambodia socialist reform has led to oppression, genocide and some of the most brutal societies to ever exist
What movement did socialism and liberalism both grow out of?
The enlightenment
List some of the things socialism and liberalism have in common
Optimistic view of human nature
Exalt reason over faith and superstitution
Progressive in the sense that they believe in the possibility for reform and are ready to challenge the status quo
Share a desire to liberate humans from oppression
Foundational equality - we are all born equal and so deserve equal opportunities
Reject the traditional state of monarchical absolutism and divine rights
Reject anarchism in that they believe that a certain kind of state can secure significant progress in terms of freedom and foundational equality
Give an example of the liberal notion of the sanctity of private property being challenged as early as the 17th century
There were people unsure that the principles of the enlightenment could be reconciled to property ownership. During the English Civil War (1649-60) one group of radical anti-monarchists, the levellers, argued that God had given the land to all mankind, yet some had exercised greed so as to acquire land for themselves
How did ideas around rejecting private property develop in the 18th century
Jean Jacques Rousseau in his Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755) suggested that many crimes, wars and muders, many horrors and misfortunes arose from the concept of private ownership, while during the French Rev Francois-Noel Babeuf led a ‘conspiracy of the equals’ demanding the abolition of private property
When was the term socialism first used
The early 19th century
Describe the contributions of Robert Owen and Charles Fourier to the development of socialism
Both were so called utopian socialists, offering a radical response to the emerging problems of capitalism and industry. Fourier advocated independent communities based on communal ownership and production, involving equal distribution of resources and a culture marked by tolerance and permissiveness.
Owen set up model cooperative communities in Scotland and America, designed to promote shared ownership, shared responsibility and altruism
What is utopian socialism
Refers to the earliest form of socialism, based on a vision of the perfect human existence. For Marx, its utopian character stemmed from its lack of any clear vision for bring about such socialism
When did socialist ideas begin to be taken seriously
During the mid 19th century, when the pace of industrialisation increased dramatically
How had industrialisation weakened liberalism
Offered an inadequate response to the issues brought about by industrialisation. Liberalism seemed to be in denial about the impacts of urban life and blinkered to the fact that in the new industrial areas there was little scope for individual autonomy and freedom
What does Eric Hobsbawm say about conditions in mid 19th century Britain
For an individual living in a slum, paying rent to a rapacious landlord, while working in a factory for whatever wages his employer deigned to pay him, any notion of freedom or independence seemed utterly distant
Explain fraternity and cooperation
Fraternity denotes the socialist belief that the relationship between human beings should be marked by generosity, warmth and comradeship; that we should regard our fellow human beings as siblings rather than opponents and that cooperation and solidarity, rather than competition and division should be the norm in human affairs
How is liberal optimism about human nature different to socialist optimism
Liberals think individuals are naturally self reliant and self sufficient, whereas socialist believe that we are naturally generous, altruistic and compassionate. Instead of seeking independence, supremacy and autonomy as liberals claim, we seek solidarity, fraternity and comradeship
Socialism concedes that mankinds true nature has been diluted by time and circumstances. So whereas liberalism takes an optimistic view of human nature as it is, socialists are more optimistic about how it could be. This is because socialism sees human nature as malleable or plastic, rather than being permanently fixed at birth. They therefore feel that human nature can be adjusted, ensuring that we can fulfil our true fraternal while contributing to a more cooperative community
How do socialists differ from liberals in terms of how they see society
Liberals see society as being the sum of autonomous individuals, socialists see individuals as being the product of society
Socialists therefore see society as an independent construct formed by impersonal forces
What do socialist thinkers like Marx and Engels think are the impersonal forces that make up society
They thought these forces were primarily economic, with the means of production - that is, the way society’s resources are determined and distributed - having a crucial impact upon the nature of society, and by implication human nature
Why are socialists sceptical of the classical liberal claim that we are masters of our own destiny
Because they say this will depend on the nature of society. Society is often cited as the main reason for individuals not fulfilling their potential
How do socialist think we can improve the prospects of individuals who are not fulfilling their potential
By changing society, since we are products of our environment
Explain the idea of class
Social class is central to socialism - it defines an individuals circumstances, prospects and attitudes. Various terms have been used to describe class distinctions: middle class/working class, bourgeoisie/proletariat, white collar/blue collar. All denote a certain type of employment, while indicating status and wealth within society
What do socialists think was the main consequence of the industrial rev
The emergence of distinct social groupings - classes - based principally upon employment and an individual’s source of income. They say these classes are central to our fate. They reject that men and women are autonomous creatures, free to carve our our own identities and destinies - socialists argue that our status, priorities and prospects are shaped by the social class they are born into. And your position in the social class is in turn determined by the state of the economy
Explain the idea shared by Marx and Engels, as well as more moderate socialist thinkers like Anthony Crosland that social classes are profoundly unequal in terms of power and influence
Those in the working class earn less and therefore wield less influence in society. Individuals in some sections of society will have more opportunity to make the most of their potential than individuals in other sections of society. This feeds into socialism unique perspective on equality
Explain how the socialist idea of equality is different to liberalism
Because they think the formal equality liberals advocate for is meaningless without greater equality of outcome within society, by which socialists mean a greater equality between people’s material resources within society
Explain the socialist idea of social justice
Legal and formal equality is not enough to guarantee equality of opportunity. These things must be accompanied by social justice, which involves things like healthcare and education accessible to all and a minimum wage for employees. The case for social justice therefore usually leads to the case for collectivism
How do socialists justify the idea that greater material equality is needed between the classes in order to allow for equality of opportunity
They say that irrespective of character, ability and intelligence an individual born into a lower class background will have fewer opportunities than a similar individual born into a higher class background.
Say that a society that produces inequality of outcome in one generation will produce inequality of outcome in the next. Therefore argue that until we have a society that produces greater equality outcome, the objectives of liberalism and the enlightenment, such as self determination and foundational equality, cannot be realised. Unlike modern liberalism and paternalistic conservatism, socialist think it is insufficient to just improve the position of society’s poorest - saying that unless the gap between the social classes has narrowed, society will continue to lack fraternity, cooperation and solidarity, and will instead foster greed, envy, resentment and division
Why are private property and capitalism a threat to our fraternal, cooperative nature
Because they encourage competitiveness, ruthless egotims and the callous pursuit of self interest
What does capitalism generate that socialists have a problem with
Huge inequalities of outcome, which are incompatible with equality of opportunity, social justice and self determination
Define common ownership
Alternative to private property and a capitalist economy, a method of ownership seen as being conducive to equality and fraternity. Synonymous with state or public ownership
Define capitalism
Economic liberalism. Based on private property, private enterprise and competition between individuals and individual organisations
How do socialists look to rectify the issues caused by capitalism
By championing an economy that provides greater workers’ control in employment, significant wealth redistribution
How did Tony Benn describe the principles or redistribution championed by socialists
Described socialism as the politics or Robin Hood - taking from the rich and then giving the the poor.
What two principles does the redistributionist economy involve
Rejection of laissez faire capitalism. Socialists say that in an economy where there is low taxation and minimal state interference will be one where unfairness and social injustice are exascerbated
Second, arising from the rejection of laissez faire, socialists demand greater collectivism. This economic perspective claims to focus on the needs of society as a whole rather than on the abilities of a few enterprising individuals
For socialists, economic collectivism can take various forms…
Progressive taxation, whereby the state extracts its wealth from its citizens on a slidling scale so that the richer classes contribute more
Progressive public spending where the state uses its tax revenue in a way that enhances the position of the less fortunate through things like state benefits to the unemployed or elderly
Extensive public services, where the state uses its tax money to guarantee key public services like healthcare and education. Socialists claim that if these services were left entirely to private enterprise, then they might prove inaccessible to the more disadvantaged sections of society
Extensive state regulation of capitalism to prevent exploitation by society’s richer and more powerful elements. Examples of such regulations are a legal minimum wage for employees, equal pay legislation, health and safety directives and guarantees for maternity leave
State ownership recommended where private enterprise is seen to fail with bad consequences for the vulnerable in society. The original clause IV of the Labour Party constitution championed by thinkers like Beatrice Webb was a controversial expression of this belief in a more collectivist economy, while the post war nationalisation of industries such as coal, iron and steel can be seen as this being put into practise
What do socialists think are the two main benefits of a redistributionist economy
Things like progressive taxation, increased public spending, extensive public services and more public ownership are seen as expression of a more cooperative, fraternal society with greater social justice
Collectivist principles are seen to make the economy more efficient. Marx and Engels pointed out that capitalism was volatile and unpredictable, causing periodic mass unemployment. A more collectivist economy will be more stable and manageable and therefore more likely to provide the material resources society needs
Why do socialists think that a strong state is necessary
Because with out it it will be impossible to bring about a fairer and more equal society. In the short to medium term at least, it will be difficult to bring about wealth redistibution and greater social justice without an expansive and dirigiste state
They say that any reduction in state power is likely to produce increased economic and social inequality.
What is a dirigiste state
One that seeks to direct a society’s economy
What do branches such as classical marxists and orthodox communists believe will eventually happen to the state
That it will no longer be necessary and will with wither away, with Marx calling this the end of history
What kind of states do socialist reject
Monarchical states - based on the authority of one person
Theocratic states, based on religious principles
Aristocratic states - based on a hereditary ruling class
What kind of state do socialists want
They want to see political power, as well as economic power, redistributed, with decision making reflecting the principle of equality and an empowerment of the people. This means socialist will at least pay lip service to democracy
What two broad categories can we divide socialism into
Revisionist socialism and fundamentalist socialism
What is the difference between fundamentalists and revisionists
Revisionists say that the core themes of socialism are compatible with capitalism and private property but fundamentalists disagree
Define fundamentalist socialism
Earliest form. Originally asserted by Marx and Engels with their classical Marxism, however, this form of socialism has seen been associated with branches such as orthodox communism, neo marxism, euro communism and democratic socialism
Define communism
Seen by Marx as the ultimate stage of human development, represents the perfect society, based on communal ownership, communal living and the principle of each according to his needs
Define Marxism
Sees history as episodic, critiques capitalism and justifies revolution
What do all fundamentalist socialists believe
That at some stage capitalism must be abolished
What was classical marxism the first branch of socialism to do
Set out detailed analyssi
What did Marx mean when he described the likes of Owen and Fourier as utopian socialists
He used this term to denote the vagueness and superficiality of their beliefs
What did Marx say that capitalism promoted
Exploitation, alienation and oppression of one class by another and was therefore fundamentally at odds with key socialist principles like fraternity, solidarity and equality
Who ideas did Marx and Engels draw on when they said that history goes through stages moving towards an end point
Friedrich Hegel
What is the idea that history moves to an end point by going through stages called
Historicism
What did Hegel think happened at the end of each historical stage
There was an intellectual clash, known as a dialectic. This dialectic occured when the official narrative about a society’s aims and culture - as propounded by its ruling classes - no longer corresponded to the perceptions of the majority, who experienced what Hegel described as alienation.
What did Hegel say a dialectic would produce
A new kind of society, a new orthodox mentality and a new stage of history that would survive until the next wave of alienation
Define class consciousness
Marx and Engels said this was a by product of capitalism that would be especially pronounced among the downtrodden working class. It would eventually be the engine or revolution and capitalism’s destruction
Define historical materialism
Marx and Engels view that each stage of history was defined by a clash of economic ideas, relating to how society’s resources should be produced and distributed
How did Marx and Engels adjust Hegel’s historicism
They said that the prevailig mentality would always be defined by economics and the mode of production. They thought that history was a series of economic stages, a process they termed historical materialism
They saw the dialectic not so much as a clash of ideas as of economic interests - something they termed dialectical materialism. Within this dialectic, one class would be economically dominant, while the others will be exploited for economic purposes. This was the logic that led them to realise that capitalism was historically doomed, given the class consciousness it would produce among an economically exploited and therefore alienated proletariat
What is the mode of production
The way society’s resources were generated and dispersed
List the stages of historical materialism and dialectic change according to Marx and Engels
1) Primitive societies with no economic organisation
2) Slave based societies with slaves as the main mode of production
3) Feudal societies - land is owned by the monarch and then leased to lords, tenants and eventually serfs
4) Emergence of capitalism
5) Emergence of proletariat and class consciousness
6) Revolution and destruction of capitalism
7) Socialism (dictatorship of the proletariat)
8) Withering away of the socialist state
9) Communism
10) End of history
Explain Marx and Engels belief in revolution
They said that capitalism was bound to become unsustainable because it would produce a large alienated workforce which had developed class consciousness and that it would therefore be necessary to smash capitalism through revolutionary violence and replace it with an alternative economy and society. They said this could not be achieved peacefully within existing liberal societies. Said these states were the servants of the capitalist societies that must be destroyed. Rejected evolutionary or reformist socialism as an inherent contradiction
Insisted that a new economy and state, forged by revolution, were essential if socialist values were to be secured. The dictatorship of the proletariat would eradicate any traces of the liberal capitalist society that preceded it and pave the way for a stateless communist society based on common ownership, one that would be so flawless that it would represent the peak of human achievement and the end of history
How did Lenin wish to refine Marx’s ideas
Said that Marx’s insistence that the revolution and dictatorship of the proletariat could only occur in societies where capitalism and the proletariat were well developed
Which key thinker shared Lenin’s disagreement over the notion that revolution could only occur in places where capitalism was well established
Rosa Luxemburg
Why did Lenin and Luxemburg object to Marx’s idea that revolution could only occur in countries where capitalism was well established
Because this idea unacceptably implied that less developed countries would have to go through many more decades of oppressive rule and all the horrors of a developing capitalist economy before the salvation of socialism could arrive
What are the two most famous works of Marx and Engels
The Communist Manifesto (1848)
Das Kapital (1867)
How did Marx define the bourgeoisie
The ruling class that managed the economy
How did Marx define the proletariat
The working class, which sold its labour to the bourgeoisie in return for wages
How did Marx counter the liberal idea that capitalism was bound to succeed as it provided prosperity and individuals liberty for all
Said that capitalism usually sought to be competitive by creating surplus value, where employers paid employees minimum possible wages so as to allow greater profits to refine the means of production. They said that this surplus value was capitalism sowing the seeds of its own destruction by nurturing resentful class consciousness in the working class who would resultantly rise up and overthrow the system by revolution
Explain Marx’s rejection of the idea that the liberal state was politically neutral
Argued the state would serve the interests of whichever class solved the economy. The liberal state was therefore ‘merely a committee’ for the ruling class and could never provide an evolutionary road to socialism. This would inspire later revolutionary socialists like Ralph Miliband and Tariq Ali who ridiculed the parliamentary socialism championed by institutions like the Labour party
What did Marx say should happen after the revolution had occured
They said a new state should emerge to govern in the interest of the new economically dominant class - which they called the dictatorship of the proletariat. Once this alternative state had cemented socialist value it would wither away and be replaced by communism - a stateless society of common ownership based on the idea from each according to his ability to each according to his need
What did Lenin want to do to Marx’s idea of revolutionary socialism
Accelarate it and ensure that socialism and communism could pre empt the development of capitalism
How did Lenin support the idea of accelarating revolutionary socialism in What is to be Done? (1902)
Said that revolution in pre industrial countries should be the cause but not the effect (as Marx argued) of socialist ideas developing
Lenin believed revolution occuring before capitalism had fully developed would prevent the people from developing any kind of sympathy towards capitalism (a situation Leninists referred to as false consciousness) which would then be a further obstacle to socialism
Although Luxemburg agreed with Lenin’s impatience for socialism, she was also concerned that his ideas would…
Make socialism less relevant to the already industrialised masses in Germany
Over what idea do supporters of Lenin and Luxemburg undergo a major split
In respect of how the revolution should arise, how it should be conducted
Which 4 tasks did Lenin say the vanguard (the revolutionary elite) were there to complete
1) Plot and plan the overthrow of the existing regime
2) Incite and organise the revolution
3) Prior to and during the revolution, it would start educating the masses into the basic virtues of socialism
4) Once the old regime had been toppled, the vanguard would form a new organisation: the Communist Party. This new party would embody Marx’s dictatorship of the proletariat and direct all aspects of the new post revolutionary society - a doctine that became known as democratic centralism
Define democratic centralism
Not democratic in the generally accepted sense. Only one party and only within that party could there be open discussion. Lenin said that once the body had made its decision, this decision would embody the will of the people, making further debate at best unnecessary and at worst disrespectful to the revolution. The doctrine was later used to justify severe repression in orthodox countries like China and Russia
How did Stalin uphold and develop the ideas of Lenin
Collectivised agriculture and instituted a five year plan for industrial development, either relocating or murdering a whole peasant class in the process
Rejected the permanent revolution theory of Trotsky, who argued that any new socialist state could only entrench itself by encouraging revolutions in neighbouring capitalist countries. Instead, Stalin promoted the idea of ‘socialism in one country’ where the USSR would isolate itself from the outside world and thereafter promote an idea of socialist nationalism (a concept Luxemburg rejected )
How did Mao develop orthodox communism
Adopted similarly brutal methods as had been performed in Russia. Instead of rejecting Trotsky’s notion of a permanent revolution, Mao refined it into the notion of an ongoing cultural revolution - one that would destroy the old way of thinking in much the same way that the previous revolution had destroyed the old mode of production
When was Mao’s cultural revoltution mainly conducted?
Between 1966-9
Describe Mao’s cultural revolution
Campaign of persecution against any aspect of traditional Chinese culture (like ancestor worship) that was thought to legitimise inequality and promote anti socialist thinking. Religion, deference to the elderly and the subordination of women were cruelly discouraged. As with Stalin’s Russia, millions of people died in the process
Why were many of the countries that adopted the orthodox communist method in the second half of the 20th century too impatient according to Marx
Because he would have seen them as nowhere near the level of economic development necessary for revolution
Give some examples of countries that invoked the ideas of vanguard parties and democratic centralism in the second half of the 20th century
Cuba, North Korea and North Vietnam
Why is Marxism-Leninism referred to as orthodox communism
Because it has been most widely applied
Why is orthodox communism a betrayal of classical marxism
Because there is little evidence of Marx’s ultimate goal of communism even being attempted to have to have been achieved. The state seemed to become increasingly pervasive instead of withering away
What party was Luxemburg a part of?
The German Social Democratic Party (SPD)
How did Luxemburg say socialism needed to come about in Reform or Revolution (1900)
She accepted Marx’s arguement that society was exploitative and was at odds with our fraternal, cooperative nature. She also agreed that evolutionary socialism was impossible. Like Lenin she had disagreed with Marx’s historicism and denied that capitalism had to reach and advanced stage of development for revolution to occur
Rejected Lenin’s idea that revolution could only come about through the planning of a vanguard elite. She instead said that revolution would emerge spontaneously after class consciousness had been gradually brought about through the proletariats ongoing battle for progress in the workplace. Mass strike action would develop spontaneously from this and this would ignite a wider revolutionary movement. Rejected the idea of a vanguard leading the revolution. Instead she advocated the immediate construction of a new democracy, underpinned by common ownership, open debate and elections
How did Luxemburg uphold Marx’s internationalism
Dismissed Lenin’s interest in socialist nationalism, claiming Lenin overlooked the transnational character of both capitalism and proletarian interests. She said socialist revolution should be more than just national regime change; it should be a revolt against capitalism and nationalism globally - an arguement that continues to be made by groups like the International Socialist League
What did Luxemburg do following the outbreak of WWI
Disgusted by the SPD’s support the German war effort, left the party and began organising anti war demonstrations, certain that the war provided optimum conditions for revolution, while proclaiming that ‘the enemy of socialism remains within our own country’
What did Luxemburg do after the war?
Helped establish the German Communist Party (KPD). Conventional marxists and leninists were appalled by her belief that the KPD should contest elections in the post war constituent assembly, claiming this was a betrayal of Marx’s rejection of evolutionary socialism and a heretical compromise with the status quo. Luxemburg argued that having a foothold in the existing political status quo made it easier for communists to convey the case for revolution to proletarian voters. This was a precusor to the euro communism that would emerge in the late 20th century and that remains popular with modern parties in Europe
Make the case that Marxism is redundant
Instead of Marxism marking the end of history, history has marked the end of communism
The collapse of the USSR brought to an end an 80 year attempt to bring marxist ideals to fruition
The attempts to implement Marxist principles did not just fail but were catastrophic - leading to repression, torture and genocide
Capitalism has not imploded, as Marx forecast. Instead it has spread wider and even penetrated countries that were formerly orthodox communist
In advanced capitalist states the working class has not risen to revolution in the way that Marx predicted. Instead they have taken on bourgeoisie characteristics like the acquisition of private property, while themselves enjoying the benefits of market economies
Make the case that Marxism is not redundant
Capitalism remains unstable and volatile, just as Marx highlighted
Capitalism continues to cause poverty and gross inequality, particularly in developing economies
Globalisation has weakened the power of national govts, reinforcing Marx’s idea that economic power supersedes political power
The disappointing record of socialist govts in capitalist states (such as Francois Hollande’s in France) vindicates Marx’s arguement that radical change is impossible without revolution
Regimes like the USSR and China were a distortion of Marxist principles. Just because Marx’s theories were misapplied this does not make them invalid
What has become the most influential form of fundamentalist socialism in the west
Democratic socialism
When did democratic socialism emerge
The late 19th century - becoming fully fleshed out in the early 20th century
Give an example of a democratic socialist party in Europe
Syriza in Greece
Give an example of a democratic socialist politician in Britain
Corbyn
Who is early democratic socialism in the UK associated with
The Fabian Society and various bourgeois intellectuals like GB Shaw, Sidney Webb and Beatrice Webb
What party did democratic socialism prove vital in the development of
Labour
Which key thinkers heavily influenced clause IV of the Labour Party constitution
Beatrice Webb
How was clause IV an expression of fundamentalist socialism
Because it said the party wanted to secure for the producers by hand and by brain the full fruits of their industry and the most equitable distribution thereof, upon the basis of the common ownership of the means of production
What differentiates the fundamentalist socialism of Webb to that of Marx, Lenin and Luxemburg
She rejected revolutionary change
Why did Webb reject revolution
In The Cooperative Movement in Great Britain (1891) she said revolutions were chaotic inefficient and counter productive and therefore guilty of the same problem besetting capitalism, unpredictability
What did Webb want to replace the volatility of capitalism
She looked forward to a more planned and rational society where matters could be resolved sensibly by rational, educated and civic minded officials
Explain the idea of the inevitability of gradualism
Early democratic socialists believed that the extension of the franchise that was going on at their time had facilitated a more orderly election based progression towards post capitalist society. Democratically elected socialist govts would steadily reform society via the existing parliamentary system, gradually replacing a system based on private ownership with one based on common ownership and public control
Democratic socialist parties would campaign peacefully and gain the trust of voters
Voters would inevitably elect socialist govts
Voters would recognise the progress being made and re elect these govts
The benefit to society of the socialist society that would eventually be created would be clear to all, meaning the society would not be reversed once created
What 4 key principles defined Webb’s socialism
1) Capitalism was the principles cause of crippling poverty and demeaning inequality and was a corrupting force for humanity, fostering unnatural levels of greed and selfishness
2) Neither paternalism not philanthropy was a sustainable solution to the problems of poverty and inequality
3) Poverty and inequality are most likely to be eliminated through vigorous trade unionism and extensive state intervention
4) Effective reform tends to be gradual rather than revolutionary
What is the Fabian Society
An organisation committed to evolutionary socialism via Westminster reforms
What did Webb steer the Fabian Society into doing
Aligning itself with the developing Labour Party
Webb served on a Royal Commission between 1905-9. What was this commission looking into
The state’s approach to poverty
What did Webb’s Minority Report suggest
That the state should guarantee sufficient nourishment and training when young, a living wage when able bodied, treatment when secure and modest but secure livelihood when disabled or aged. Much of this anticipated the 1942 Beveridge Report, which was then implemented by the post war Labour govt
Define evolutionary socialism
Linked to both democratic socialism and revisionist socialism. Involves a rejection of revolutionary politics and a belief that socialism can be achieved peacefully and gradually through the existing constitutional system
What did Tony Benn think had caused the failure of the Wilson-Callaghan govts
He thought this failure showed the impossibility of achieving socialism within a mainly capitalist economy. He said the drastic cuts to public spending Labour made in 1976 under pressure from the IMF, underlined the danger of a socialist govt seeking to rescue a flagging capitalist system. He saw the 1979 defeat as inevitable punishment awaiting any socialist govt that compromised with capitalism’s contradictions
What adjustments to evolutionary socialism did Benn think needed to be made in order for it to work
- The restoration of parliamentary sovereignty through withdrawal from the EEC
- Parliamentary reform design to make it easier for socialist reforms to be brought about - with Benn suggesting the abolition of the HoL and the subsequent strengthening of a socialist dominated commons
- Stronger resistance by socialist govts to pro capitalist vested interests - which could be achieved if socialist govts mobilised support from their own vested interests, for example within TUs
- Internal restructuring of a governing socialist party in order to give more power to individual party members outside parliament, allowing them to do things like select and de-select party leaders. This would encourage socialist PMs to stay true to socialist ideas and not be diverted by non socialist forces once in office
How did communist parties that emerged from the 1970s in western Europe wish to present themselves
They wanted to distance themselves from the USSR and present themselves as a radical yet respectable alternative
Give some examples of european communist parties that rejected the call for revolution
The French Communist Party (PCF)
The Italian Communist Party (PCI)
What did euro communist parties look to do instead of revolution
Contested elections, took up seats won in national parliaments and occupied positions of executive power within the existing system
Give some examples of successes enjoyed by Euro Communist parties
George Marchais of the PCF served in France’s socialist-communist coalition govt of the early 1980s
George Napolitano of the PCI served as Italian president between 2006-2015
Which Italian socialist intellectual influenced the euro communist approach
Antonio Gramsci
Which party was founded by Gramsci
The PCI
How did Gramsci influence Euro Communism
Gramsci said that capitalism could not be overthrown without mass public support. He argued that such support was hard to achieve given that the ruling class had cultural hegemony. He said that socialist change must therefore be preceded by the creation of a counter culture in all areas of life. He said socialists needed their own cultural vanguard in order to achieve this, promoting new ideas from within existing society
Euro communists supported this idea and said that a socialist counter culture would be more persuasive if parties like the PCI were legitimised through routine election campaigns and responsibility in govt
How is euro communism different to other forms of fundamentalist socialism
Said the existing liberal bourgeois state could facilitate meaningful socialist change, including the transition from a privately to a publicly owned economy
Rejected inevitability and desirability of revolution and often talked about the disasters of 1917 Russia and 1949 China
Rejected the dictatorship of the proletariat and reworked historical materialism. Claimed that it would be the liberal capitalist state that withered away, communism would still emerge as the end of history, but without the need for any intervening revolution or the dictatorship of the proletariat
What ‘school’ of philosophy did neo marxism emerge from
The Frankfurt School
Give some examples of prominent philosophers within the Frankfurt School
Herbert Marcuse
Max Horkheimer
How do the neo marxists share views with Gramsci
The embrace the notion of cultural hegemony when explaining capitalism’s durability. They agreed that capitalist values do not just infect the economy but also wider society
How do neo marxists disagree with Gramsci in terms of how capitalist cultural hegemony should be tackled
While Gramsci said it could be countered by a socialist vanguard infiltrating key parts of the society, the Frankfurt School felt that cultural hegemony merely vindicated Marx’s belief in revolution. They said that revolution was now needed not only to smash capitalism, but also the false consciousness that had allowed capitalism to survive
Why can we conclude that the Frankfurt School was not optimistic that revolution would occur
Its spokesman conceded that capitalism was proving much more resilient and adaptable than Marx had imagined
How do the neo marxists disagree with the euro communists
Neo Marxist reject the euro communist belief that capitalism can be gradually reformed out of existence. They instead asserted that when the next economic slump came, socialists should advocate revolution rather than pursuing a long term programme of political change
What does Marcuse (a neo marxist) say was the key flaw in Gramsci’s ideas
He said that an economic system would always shape the culture of the nation - and that Gramsci was therefore wrong to suggest that this was the other way around
What idea did Ralph Miliband seek to demolish in his key work The State in Capitalist Society (1973)
That socialism could ever be achieved through gradual, parliamentary reform
What did Ralph Miliband argue had happened to every democratic socialist government that had come into power
They had been blown off course and forced to dilute their socialist agendas. Miliband thought this was foreseeable and just what Marx had predicted - that the existing state will always look to protect the interest of the existing economically dominant class
Examining the record of recent Western European Socialist govts, Miliband claimed they were confronted and frustrated by a web of state-sponsored, anti-socialist forces such as the senior civil service, the judiciary, the armed forces and the security services
Miliband said all these pro capitalist forces would conspire to divert socialist govts, especially during the economic crises to which capitalism was prone. Miliband thus concluded that a parliamentary road to socialism was impossible. It would need to be at the very least accompanied by a revolutionary overthrow of the economic status quo, probably arising from the spontaneous TU action supported by Rosa Luxemburg years earlier
Give some examples of revolutionary socialism
Classical Marxism
Neo Marxism
Orthodox Communism
Give some examples of revolutionary socialism
Democratic Socialism
Euro Communism
All forms of Revisionist Socialism
Define revisionist socialism
This is the belief that socialism can be achieved without the destruction of capitalism and private property or the upheaval of revolution
When did revisionist socialism first emerge
The late 19th century
Where can the earliest form of revisionist socialism be found
German socialist Eduard Bernstein, in his book Evolutionary Socialism (1898)
Explain Bernstein’s classical revisionism
He noted that by the end of the 19th century, the condition of the working class was steadily improving under capitalism - especially in those states where capitalism was well developed. Little evidence of history unfolding in the way Marx had prescribed or that Marx’s crisis of capitalism was about to materialise
This led him to argue that if overseen by socialist govts, capitalism could provide an even greater improvement to the lives of workers, with capitalism worse features being contained. He said that the widening of the franchise and a working class majority among voters meant that such socialist govts were increasingly likely. Such govts could then do things like legally insist that employers provided improved conditions for their workers and that landlords continuously improved provisions for their tenants - all of which would curb the inequalities produced by capitalism, while eliminating the need for revolution
He endorsed many of the ideas being touted by early democratic socialists like the Fabians and supported laws that would extend TU rights and education for working class children. He shared the Fabian’s belief in a gradual, evolutionary road to socialism and was friendly with some of its members. What made Bernstein different was that he did not hold these views alongside an irrevocable comtempt for capitalism - he believed that the struggle for socialism could co exist with a society based on private property
Make the case that socialism must involve the abolition of capitalism and private property
Equality is a core value of socialism and capitalism generates inequality
Socialism’s core values include fraternity and cooperation, private property promoted individualism and competition
Many fundamentalist socialists believe that private property leads to the oppression and exploitation of working people and that the collapse of capitalism was therefore historically inevitable
Gramsci and the Frankfurt school said that capitalism had instilled in us a false consciousness that would make socialism hard to achieve while capitalism still existed
Early democratic socialists like Webb believe common ownership to be more rational and efficient than private ownership
Later democratic socialists like Benn believed that attempts to achieve socialism alongside Keynesian capitalism had failed
Make the case that socialism can be achieved alongside capitalism and private property
The debate about public/private ownership concerns the means not the ends of socialism - with the true ends being equality and fraternity
Early revisionists like Bernstein recognised that working class conditions had been rising under capitalism, as a result of capitalism economies growing in a way that Marx did not envisage
Social democratic revisionists like Crosland stated that increased public spending rather than public ownership was what was needed. Increases in public expenditure were possible if capitalist economies grew steadily, which would occur if Keynesian economic policies were properly applied
Third way revisionists like Giddens argued that a thriving neo liberal economy could provide the state with a growing tax yield, financing the extra public spending that socialism required
The globalisation of capitalism, the spread of home ownership forced socialists to reconcile their values to a world where capitalism and private ownership are common
When was the term social democracy first used to describe revisionist socialists
In the mid 20th century
Where did social democracy originally develop
West Germany
How did social democracy develop in West Germany
Post 1945 developments within the social democratic party (SPD) one of western Europe’s most influential socialist grouping. At its Bad Godesberg Conference SPD revisionists such as the future German chancellors Willy Brandt and Helmut Schmidt persuaded the party to renounce its links with Marxism by embracing modern capitalism and the post war German state
Which young British thinker influenced German social democrats such as Brandt and Schmidt
Anthony Crosland, particularly his 1956 work The Future of Socialism
On what grounds did Crosland decide to support capitalism despite being a socialist
He said that Keynesian capitalism where the state sought to manage market forces had guaranteed full employment and steady economic growth. He said that capitalism was therefore now no longer vulnerable to peaks and troughs and could be relied upon to produce a richer, fairer and less class based society. He said that the end of the cycical nature of capitalism allowed for a constant expansion of public spending, state welfare and constant progress towards the socialist goal of greater equality
Explain Keynesianism
Involves the state managing the economy to ensure steady growth and full employment
What was the main source of disagreement between Crosland and the continental social democrats
European integration. Brandt and Schmidt spoke warmly about the prospect of a federal Europe, Crosland and other Labour politicians like Peter Shore warned that the application of Keynesianism required national govts to have control over economic strategies. As Crosland warned in his final book, Socialism Now (1974) a Europe wide economic policy would be more likely to produce austerity than full employment. This arguement would later be echoed by continental socialist parties like Syriza in Greece and Podemos in Spain
When did Crosland serve as a Labour cabinet minister
During the 1960s and 1970s Labour govts
What did Crosland say about the extent of public ownership at the time
That it had gone far enough, especially considering that public ownership was never the aim of socialism but rather a means to an end. He said the true goal was equality, which could now be achieved within a keynesian capitalist economy
How did Crosland say that economic change had altered the class system
Said that society was less binary and polarised between employers and employees and infinitely more complex than Marx could ever have imagined. He highlighted new classes like ‘managers’ and ‘technocrats’ whose perspectives were likely to be different to that of traditional workers
What kind of economy did Crosland think socialism now required
A mixed economy which comprised private enterprise and private ownership, alongside key services and a small number of industries being owned by the state, a situation he thought had largely been achieved following the 1945-51 Labour govt. He thought the future task of socialist govts was not more public ownership but rather more public spending and better public services
Explain Crosland’s views on education
Focused on this issue in later books such as The Conservative Enemy (1962) and Socialism Now (1974). Argued for state education which would end the segregation of pupils at age 11 and create new schools catering for all abilities. Crosland thought these comprehensives would break down class divisions far more effectively than any extension to public ownership, while ensuring all pupils had equality of opportunity. Crosland pursued this idea while secretary of state for education (1965-7) initiating a process that made comprehensive education the norm by the time of his death
What is the most recent form of revisionism
Neo revisionism/The Third Way
Give some examples of politicians associated with the third way
New Labour politicians like Blair and Brown and SDP politicians Gerhard Schroder
When did neo revisionism emerge
In the 1990s when the case for fundamentalist socialism was thought to have collapsed completely
Why did even Keynesianism now seem irrelevant in the 1990s
The globalisation of capitalism, the privatisation of key industries in the UK and the failure of nationalised industries made a mixed economy seem outdated. This meant that a new form of revisionist socialism became necessary
Who is credited as the main author of neo revisionism
Anthony Giddens
Why did Giddens think socialist parties like Labour needed to adapt to get into office
Because they were faced with an electorate that was increasingly propertied, suburban and individualistic
How did Giddens urge socialists to go with the flow of an increasingly free market, neo liberal economy
By encouraging further privatisation and deregulation
Why did Giddens think socialists should allow further privatisation and deregulation
He said that as this was the most modern way to boost economic growth, it was also the best way to boost govt tax revenues and therefore boost govt spending in the name of equality
What is the most important and controversial aspect of neo revisionism
Is revised attitude to inequality of outcome
On what grounds did Giddens support inequality of outcome
He said that greater equality of opportunity required more, not less, inequality of outcome. His reasoning was that in a neo liberal economy increasing growth rates usually went hand in hand with increasing inequality, and if outcomes become less unequal, if often indicated slower growth and a poorer tax yield , lower public spending and therefore less chance to improve the conditions of society’s poorest
What did Blair and Brown persuade the Labour party to do after accepting Giddens’ arguements
Renounce clause IV
Give a Peter Mandelson quote that highlights the neo revisionist attitude to inequality
We are intensely relaxed about people getting filthy stinking rich, just as long as they pay their taxes
Describe the new labour economic policy while they were in power
The tax burden rose far more than it would have done under an average conservative govt. This allowed new labour to finance a corresponding rise in public spending from 39% of GDP in 1997 to 47% in 2010. For Giddens, this stewardship of the economy, including deregulation of banks and financial services on the one hand, plus steep increases in public spending on the other, are a perfect example of third way triangulation
What other types of equality did the third way emphasise
Cultural and political equality, reflecting the fact that societies was much more cosmopolitan and diverse in the 1990s
Why did Giddens think it was fitting that socialist govts should begin to focus on forms of equality that are not strictly economic
Because globalisation had made govts less influential in the economic sphere
Give some examples of how New Labour focused on non economic forms of equality
Blair passed various social legisaltion increasing gender, racial and sexual equality. For example the legalisation of civil partnerships for gay couples. Blair also brought in legislation to redistribute political power like devolution. For neo revisionists, such reforms equalising social and political power were appropriate for socialism in a modern setting
What social science did Anthony Giddens actually specialise in?
Sociology
In which work did Giddens establish his socialist credentials
Beyond Left and Right (1994)
What was Giddens’ arguement in Beyond Left and Right
Highlighted the corrosive effects of capitalism and individualism upon community and fraternity. Yet he also stressed that capitalism and individualism were irreversible and that any future project towards greater equality would have to take account of this
What book did Giddens write during the 1997 election campaign
The Third Way: The Renewal of Social Democracy
What did Giddens argue in The Third Way: The Renewal of Social Democracy
He said the revival of social democracy required the recognition that free market capitalism had an unmatched ability to economically empower individuals. However, he also argued that capitalism functioned best when there was a strong sense of social sense of cohesion, which neo liberalism seemed to overlook. Therefore what is needed is a triangulation, reconciling a neo liberal view of economics with a social democratic view of society , this will make centre left politics relevant to the 21st century
Explain the significance of post fordist capitalism for Giddens
He said that this made triangulation especially important. During the mid 20th century, fordist capitalism, based on huge industrial units of mass production, had spawned tightly knit urban communities based on uniformity of income and employment. Giddens said these communities complemented our natural yearning for solidarity and fellowship by giving members a strong sense of support and identity, which might encourage them to challenge both economic and cultural elites (traditional trade unionism was an expression of this). Giddens said the post fordist capitalism of the late 20th and early 21st century involved the decline of heavy industry - which had fragmented such communities, atomised the modern workforce and left individuals feeling alienated
He accepted that in many respects this post fordist capitalism was liberating for individuals who were now freer to self actualise and have individual identities. However, he said that these individuals would also find it increasingly hard to develop, as society was becoming increasingly ill defined and amorphous. We were less likely to be confident when stripped of the communities that had once made us feel secure and therefore more likely to be influenced by economic and cultural elites. He thought that the great irony of the individualisation of society might actually result in less individualism. Giddens therefore thought that for human nature to flourish in the 21st century the state should both retreat from economic management and be more proactive in terms of investing in infrastructure like better public transport and community system and a modernised education system to give citizens a knowledge of the modern economy where physical capacity was less important
What other government did Giddens have an influence on aside from New Labour
The German SPD govt led by Gerhard Schroder
Make the case that socialism requires revolutionary change
Marx said that pre socialist states reflected the interests of the dominant economic class - it would not allow the promotion of socialist values. Marx also believed that revolution was historically inevitable
Lenin believed revolution was necessary to pre empt the horrors of capitalist development and stifle the development of false consciousness
Luxemburg believed revolution would emerge spontaneously from TU agitation
Trotsky believed that permanent revolution was needed until all capitalist states had disappeared
Mao believed that for socialism to survive, economic revolution must be followed by long term cultural revolution
Neo Marxists like Ralph Miliband argue that attempts at parliamentary socialism have failed
Make the case that socialism does not require revolutionary change
Early democratic socialists, such as Webb, believed in the inevitablility of gradualism, which meant slow, steady change within the existing political system
Later democratic socialists like Benn argued that the existing state required reform not abolition
Euro communists believed that the capitalist state would eventually wither away but could accommodate major socialist reform in the mean time
Early revisionists like Bernstein thought that through universal suffrage the existing steady could allow for steady, socialist change
Social democrats like Crosland and third way revisionists like Giddens believed that with the advent of a welfare state, the existing political system could ensure steady increases in public spending and therefore steady progress towards a fairer society
Giddens believed that the structures of the existing state could be reformed through things like devolution so as to produce greater political equality
Summarise Marx and Engels’ view on human nature
Human nature was originally fraternal and altruistic but has been corrupted by capitalism, instilling of false consciousness and bourgeois values. Revolutionary socialism will repair this
Summarise Marx and Engels’ view on the state
The existing liberal state is a bourgeois tool of the dominant capitalist class; it must be destroyed by revolution and replaced by a new socialist state: the dictatorship of the proletariat
Summarise Marx and Engels’ view on society
Society is defined by class interests and class conflict. A communist society will stop this and mark the end of history
Summarise Marx and Engels’ view on the economy
Capitalism is corrupt, inefficient and self destructive. It should and will be replaced by an economy based on collective ownership
Summarise Luxemburg’s view on human nature
Not been damaged to the extent Marx thought. Fraternity and altruism still flourish in working class communities but this is punished by capitalism
Summarise Luxemburg’s view on the state
The existing capitalist state must be destroyed by spontaneous revolution that comes about through TU agitation. The new state should be a genuine democracy, with free elections and free speech
Summarise Luxemburg’s view on society
Capitalist society is class ridden and morally indefensable, yet alternative societies/sub cultures exist within downtrodden prolaterian communities
Summarise Luxemburg’s view on the economy
Capitalism is more resilient than Marx thought. Its necessary destruction and replacement by an economy based on worker control will require determination and solidarity amongst the proletariat
Summarise Webb’s view on human nature
The damage capitalism has inflicted on our psyche will only be accentuated by revolution. Humanity needs to be gradually guided back to its original cooperative form
Summarise Webb’s view on the state
If harnessed to universal suffrage, the state could be used to bring about gradual socialist change
Summarise Webb’s view on society
The poverty and inequalities in a capitalist society continue to depress human potential while fostering regressive competition
Summarise Webb’s view on the economy
A chaotic capitalist economy will gradually be replaced by one that secures for workers the full fruits of their labour, based on common ownership of the means of production
Summarise Crosland’s view on human nature
We have a natural sense of fairness and therefore object to big inequalities of outcome
Summarise Crosland’s view on the state
Democratic socialist govts like Labour 1945-51 prove that the existing state can be used to effect radical socialist change
Summarise Crosland’s view on society
Society is increasingly complex due to the emergence of new social groupings like ‘meritocratic managers’ and ‘classless technocrats’
Summarise Crosland’s view on the economy
A mixed economy underpinned by public ownership and keynesian capitalism will finance the greater public spending necessary to ensure equality
Summarise Giddens’ view of human nature
Been shaped by changing socio economic conditions. The pro fairness instinct is still present, but now competes with a sharpened sense of individual aspiration
Summarise Giddens’ view of the state
The existing liberal state should be improved, redistributing and decentralising political power while encouraging greater political participation
Summarise Giddens’ view of society
Society had undergone embourgeoisement - socialist must therefore harness rather than deny these forces
Summarise Giddens’ view of the economy
A neo liberal economy propelled by deregulation and privatisation will provide huge tax yields. This will finance huge public spending increases, which can ensure greater equality of opportunity
Describe the tensions within socialism over human nature
All socialist believe that human nature is malleable to some extent. Some like Marx believe that human nature is especially susceptible to be impacted by the mode of production. People are therefore likely to suffer a false consciousness that can be cured only be revolution and authoritarian rule (the dictatorship of the proletariat). Other socialist, such as revisionists like Giddens, argue that human nature can prosper under capitalism yet still appreciate the importance of core socialist beliefs like cooperation, fraternity and collectivism
Describe the tensions within socialism over society
By defintion, all socialists see our social environment as the crucial determinant of our personalities. Therefore if society can be improved by making it more equal and fraternal, improvements in our attitude and behaviour will follow. However, socialists disagree about whether society can be improved gradually. Revolutionary socialists like Marx and the Frankfurt School believe that the existing society is so sick and inimical to socialist values that only a revolution can provide the necessary shock therapy. Other fundamentalists like Webb believe that society can be improved gradually and socialist values can become gradually more entrenched through a series of reforms that will eventually curtail private ownership. Revisionists like Crosland and Giddens argue that society can be improved and believe such improvements can occur alongside private property and capitalism
Describe socialist tensions over the state
Socialists believe the state is vital to the promotion of their values, at least to begin with. Marx and the orthodox communists believed the existing state must be destroyed by revolution and replaced by a dictatorship of the proletariat which would eventually wither away to produce stateless communism. Democratic socialists like Webb and revisionists like Crosland and Giddens believed that the existing state can be used to steer society towards socialist values and that the traditional liberal capitalist state requires constitutional reform rather than abolition
Describe socialist tensions over the economy
Fundamentalist socialists like Marx, Luxemburg and Webb believe socialism is incompatible with a capitalist economy. Marxists and orthodox communists believe that a new non capitalist economy should be quickly created via revolution, while democratic socialists believe this kind of economy will be brought about gradually via a series of elected socialist govts. By definition, revisionists believe that socialism is possible within a capitalist economy. Social democrats like Crosland believe that the economy should be mixed and run along Keynesian lines. Third way revisionists like Giddens believe the economy should be neo liberal, claiming this will produce a greater tax yield and thus more public spending
