Social Sciences and Research Flashcards
1
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[branch of soc sci] studies human societies, their contextual bounds, and the interactions and processes that preserve and change them
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sociology
2
Q
[branch of soc sci] the scientific discipline that studies mental states, biological processes and behaviour
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psychology
3
Q
[branch of soc sci] the systematic study of governance which examines the state, its organs and institutions
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political science
4
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[branch of soc sci] studies human beings in aspects ranging from the biology and evolutionary history of our species, to the features of society and culture that decisively distinguish humans from other animal species
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anthropology
5
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[branch of soc sci] seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth and resources
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economics
6
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[branch of soc sci] the rational, abstract, and methodical consideration of reality as a whole or of fundamental dimensions of human existence and experiences
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philosophy
7
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[branch of soc sci] studies the chronological record of events, as affecting a nation or people, based on a critical examination of source materials and usually presenting an explanation of their causes
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history
8
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[branch of soc sci] the study of the diverse environments, places, and spaces of Earth’s surface and their interactions
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geography
9
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this refers to a standardized set of techniques for building scientific knowledge
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scientific method
10
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4 key characteristics of the scientific method
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logical, confirmable, repeatable, scrutinizable
11
Q
[key characteristics of the scientific method] scientific inferences must be based on logical principles
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logical
12
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[key characteristics of the scientific method] inferences derived must match with observed evidence
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confirmable
13
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[key characteristics of the scientific method] other scientists should be able to independently replicate or repeat a scientific study and obtain similar, if not identical, results
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repeatable
14
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[key characteristics of the scientific method] the procedures used, and the inferences derived, must withstand critical scrutiny (peer review) by other researchers
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scrutinizable
15
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a type of research method that examines a person, place, event, phenomenon in order to extrapolate key themes and results that help predicts future trends
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case study
16
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a type of research method that uses group by group analytic treatment of individuals having a statistical factor in common to each group. group members share a particular characteristics or experiences
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cohort analysis
17
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a type of research method where the method of study is to study groups and/or cultures overs a period of time. the goal of this research is to comprehend the particular group or culture through immersion into the culture or group
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ethnography
18
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a type of research method that implores the use of independent and dependent variables
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experiment
19
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a type of research where academic or other investigative studies undertaken in a natural setting, rather than in laboratories, classrooms or other structured environments
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field studies
20
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a type of research method that is done in small, roundtable discussion groups charged with examining specific topics or problems, including possible options or solutions. consists of participants, guided by moderators
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focus group
21
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technically termed as statistical inference, the process of using data from a sample to make estimates or test hypotheses about a population
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survey
22
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defined as the languages, customs, beliefs, rules, arts, knowledge, and collective identities and memories developed by members of all social groups that make their social environments meaningful
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culture
23
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these are institutional patterns of normative culture, the features of a social entity that persists over time, are interrelated, and influence both the functioning of the entity as a whole and the activities of its individual members
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structure
24
Q
stable patterns of behavior that define, govern, and constrain action
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institutions
25
what are the elements of culture?
social norms, material culture, language
26
element of culture that describes the rule or standard of behavior shared by members of a social group. norms may be internalized, or they may be enforced by positive or negative sanctions
social norms
27
under social norms, where arbitrary rules governing the countless behaviors that individuals engage in every day without necessarily thinking about said acts deliberatively
conventions
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under social norms, set of rules that has a strong cultural significance and enforcement which expresses the group sense of what is fitting, right and conducive to social welfare . considered indispensable and violations incur social punishment and peer disapproval
mores
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under social norms, uniformities in the behavior of a group which develop relatively spontaneously and even unconsciously in adapting to common life conditions and which become established through repetition and general occurrence
folkways
30
under social norms, formal means of social control. generally recorded, codified and enforced by a governing authority or body for the protection of life, property, and liberty
laws
31
under social norms, actions or behaviors that violate informal social norms or formally-enacted rules
deviance
32
2 types of deviance
formal, informal
33
type of deviance where there is violation of legal codes, results in criminal action initiated by the state
formal deviance
34
type of deviance where there is violation of unwritten, social rules of behavior, and results in social sanction or stigma. lesser degrees of social violation results in preference rather than stigmatization
informal deviation
35
element of culture that centers upon objects, their properties, and the materials that they are made of, and the ways in which these material facets are central to an understanding of culture and social relations.
material culture
36
element of culture defined as a system of conventional spoken, manual, or written symbols by means of which human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture, express themselves
language
37
[culture concepts] guiding principles of human civilization that are so central to human identity that can be found, in some form, in all societies, both past and present, around the world
cultural universal
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[culture concepts] refers to 2 or more different forms of behavior, which co-exists, and are socially acceptable in a given context
cultural alternative
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the 5 intracultural processes
socialization, enculturation, subculture, gemeinschaft, gesellschaft
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[intracultural process] the process of deliberately shaping, by way of tutelage, of the individual for the development of behavioral similarities within a culture
socialization
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[intracultural process] an encompassing or surrounding of the individual by one's culture. the individual acquires, by immersion, what the culture deems necessary
enculturation
42
[intracultural process] ethnic, regional, economic, or social groups exhibiting characteristics patterns of behavior sufficient to distinguish them from the larger society to which they belong
subculture
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[intracultural process] 1 of the 2 types of social organization conceived by German sociologist, Ferdinand Tonnies. Referred to as the "communal society"
gemeinschaft
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[intracultural process] typified by modern cosmopolitan societies with their government bureaucracies and large industrial organizations. rational self-interest and calculating conduct act to weaken the traditional bonds of family and kinship, human relations are more impersonal and indirect
gesellschaft
45
intercultural or cross-cultural processes includes
acculturation, assimilation, cultural relativism, ethnocentrism, xenocentrism, stereotype, prejudice, discrimination, social change, social problem
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[type of intercultural process] the processes of change in artifacts, customs, and beliefs that result from the contact of 2 or more cultures
acculturation
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[type of intercultural process] the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnic heritage are absorbed into the dominant culture of society. involves taking on the traits of the dominant culture to such a degree that the assimilating group becomes socially indistinguishable
assimilation
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[type of intercultural process] a general tolerance and respect for difference, which refers to the idea that cultural context is critical to an understanding of people's values, beliefs and practices.
cultural relativism
49
[type of intercultural process] a term applied to the cultural or ethnic bias, whether conscious or unconscious, in which an individual views the world from the perspective of his or her own group, establishing the in-group as archetypal, and rating all other groups with reference to this deal
ethnocentrism
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[type of intercultural process] the opposite of ethnocentrism and refers to the belief that another culture is superior to one's own
xenocentrism
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[type of intercultural process] the positive or negative beliefs that an individual holds about the characteristics of social groups
stereotypes
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[type of intercultural process] an unjustifiable negative attitude towards an outgroup or toward the members of the outgroup
prejudice
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[type of intercultural process] an unjustifiable negative behavior toward members of outgroups based on their group membership
discrimination
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[type of intercultural process] the alteration of mechanisms within the social structure, characterized by changes in cultural symbols, rules of behavior, social organizations or value systems
social change
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[type of intercultural process] refers to social conditions that disrupt or damage society
social problem
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coined by American sociologist, William Fielding Ogburn. Refers in particular to a gap that develops between fast changing technology and other slower-paced sociocultural traits
cultural lag
57
what are the micro and macro theories of society?
functionalism, conflict theory (competition, conflict), symbolic interactionism, structuralism, evolutionism
58
[macro theory] all aspects of a society serve a purpose, and that all are necessary, therefore indispensable, for the long term survival of the society
functionalism: emile durkheim
59
a social system is assumed to have a ____ in which all parts of the system work together with some degree of internal consistency
functional unity
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[macro theory] claims that society is in a state of perpetual conflict because of competition for limited resources. it holds that social order is maintained by domination and power, rather than consensus and conformity
conflict theory: karl marx
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[under conflict theory] a goal oriented form of social interaction in which the goals or objects pursued are limited so not all competitors can attain them. competitive behavior is governed by rules and limitations
competition
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[under conflict theory] a form of social interaction involving direct struggle between individuals or groups over commonly valued resources or goals.
conflict
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[micro theory] focuses on the relationships among individuals within a society. communication, the exchange of meaning through language and symbols, is believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social worlds
symbolic interactionism: max weber and george mead
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[micro theory] emphasizes the mutual dependency of human agency and social structures. states that people are not just independent actors making independent decisions, but products of the social conditions in which they live in
structuralism
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[[micro theory] built from Darwin's theory of evolution and natural selection. states that just as species were thought to evolve into increasing complexity, so too were cultures thought to progress from a simple to complex states
evolutionism: edward b. tylor
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[family] forms of marriage: the union between 2 individuals
[family] an individual has multiple spouses over their lifetime, but only one at a time
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[family] forms of marriage: the union between 3 or more individuals
polygamy
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[family] a marriage between a man and multiple women
polyandry
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[family] several males are married simultaneously to several families
group marriage
70
[family] a group of people who are united by ties of partnership and parenthood and consisting of a pair of adults and their socially recognized children.
nuclear family
71
[family] an expansion of the nuclear family, usually built around a unilineal descent group.
extended family
72
[family] a locus where biological (consanguineal) and marital (affinal) forms of kinship combine
residence
73
[type of residence] newlyweds establish a home independent of the location of either set of parents
neolocal
74
[type of residence] the couple alternates between the wife's group and the husband's group
bilocal
75
[type of residence] they live with or near the kin of the husband
patrilocal or virilocal
76
[type of residence] they live with or near the kin of the wife
matrilocal or uxorilocal
77
[type of residence] boys leave their natal home during adolescence and join the household of one of their maternal uncles. when the boys marries, his wife joins him as a member of the uncles residence group
avunculocal
78
[forms of governments and polsci] a form of government where the monarch rules unhindered, without any rules laws, constitution or legally organized opposition
absolute monarchy
79
[forms of governments and polsci] a condition of lawlessness or political disorder brought about by the absence of governmental authority
anarchy
80
[forms of governments and polsci] the state plans and controls the economy and a single party holds power, state controls are imposed with the elimination of private ownership of property or capital while claiming to make progress toward a higher social order in which all goods are equally shared by the people
communist
81
[forms of governments and polsci] a monarch is guided by a constitution whereby his/her rights, duties, and responsibilities are spelled out in written law or by custom
constitutional monarch
82
[forms of governments and polsci] the supreme power rests in the body of citizens entitled to vote for officers and representatives responsible to them
democratic republic
83
[forms of governments and polsci] similar to a monarchy or sultanate, the supreme power is in the hands of an emir (ruler of a muslim state), the emir may be an absolute overload or a sovereign with constitutionally limited authority
emirate
84
[forms of governments and polsci] the powers of the central government are restricted and in which the component parts retain a degree of self-government; ultimate sovereign power rests with the voters who chose their governmental representatives
federal republic
85
[forms of governments and polsci] the members of an executive branch are nominated to their positions by a legislature or parliament, and are directly responsible to it; this type of government can be dissolved at will by the parliament by means of a no-confidence vote or the leader of the cabinet may dissolve the parliament if it can no longer function
parliamentary government
86
[forms of governments and polsci] a state headed by a monarch who is not actively involved in policy formation or implementation true governmental leadership is carried out by a cabinet and its head - a Prime Minister, premier or chancellor, who are drawn from a legislature
parliamentary monarchy
87
[forms of governments and polsci] Similar to a monarchy, a government in which the supreme power is in the hands of a Sultan; the Sultan may be an absolute ruler or a sovereign with constitutionally limited authority
sultanate
88
[forms of governments and polsci] The state involves itself in all facets of society, including the daily life of its citizens. this seeks to control not only all economic and political matters but the attitudes, values, and beliefs of its population, erasing the distinction between state and society
totalitarianism
89
[polsci terms and concepts] A system of social control under which the right to make laws, and the right to enforce them, is vested in a particular group in society
government
90
[polsci terms and concepts] A requirement that legal matters be resolved according to established rules and principles, and that individuals be treated fairly. It applies to both civil and criminal matters.
due process
91
[polsci terms and concepts] Fundamental principles of government in a nation, either implied in its laws, institutions, and customs, or embodied in one fundamental document or in several.
constitution
92
[polsci terms and concepts] Established a representative democracy with power divided among three separate and independent branches of government: the executive, a bicameral legislature, and the judiciary.
the 1987 Philippine constitution
93
[polsci terms and concepts] A remedy available to any person whose right to life, liberty and security is violated or threatened with violation by an unlawful act or omission of a public official or employee, or of a private individual or entity. The writ shall cover extralegal killings and enforce disappearances or threats thereof.
writ of amparo
94
[polsci terms and concepts] It is used to bring a prisoner or other detainee before the court to determine if the person's imprisonment or detention is lawful.
writ of habeas corpus
95
[polsci terms and concepts] A remedy available to any person whose right to privacy in life, liberty or security is violated or threatened by an unlawful act of any official or employee, or of a private individual or entity engaged in the gathering, collecting or storing of data or information. Under this writ, a person can compel the release of information, or to update, rectify, suppress or destroy database, information or files in the control of the respondents in a petition.
writ of habeas data
96
[polsci terms and concepts] A legal remedy under the Philippine law for persons whose constitutional right to “a balanced and healthy ecology” is violated by an unlawful act or omission of a public official, employee, or private individual or entity.
writ of kalikasan
97
[fundamental and inherent powers of the state] The power of the state to regulate liberty and property for the promotion of the general welfare.
police power
98
[fundamental and inherent powers of the state] The power which enables the state to acquire private property, upon payment of just compensation, for some intended public use.
power of eminent domain
99
[fundamental and inherent powers of the state] The power to impose burdens or charges upon persons, property or rights for the use and support of the government to be able to discharge its functions.
power of taxation
100
[economics] An 18th century Scottish economist, philosopher, and author who is considered the father of modern economics. He proposed the idea of an "invisible hand" or the tendency of free markets to regulate themselves by means of competition, supply and demand, and self-interest.
Adam Smith
101
[economics] An economic system in which private individuals or businesses own capital goods. The production of goods and services is based on supply and demand known as a "market economy" rather than through central planning, known as a "planned economy or command economy". The purest form of capitalism is laissez-faire capitalism or free market. Here private individuals are unrestrained.
Capitalism
102
[economics] A system where the government, rather than the free market, determines what goods should be produced, how much should be produced, and the price at which the goods are offered for sale. This is a key feature of any communist society.
command economy
103
[economics] A populist economic and political system based on public ownership (also known as collective or common ownership) of the means of production. Those means include the machinery, tools, and factories used to produce goods that aim to directly satisfy human needs.
socialism
104
[economics] Originated from the works of Thomas Robert Malthus. The theory that the world's population tends to increase faster than the food supply and that unless fertility is controlled famine, disease, and war must serve as natural population restrictions.
malthusianism
105
[economics] The possession that population could be controlled by using birth control methods, and also identify the working class with the problem of overpopulation.
neo-malthusianism
106
[economics] The economic law stating that if one input in the production of a commodity is increased while all other inputs are held fixed, a point will eventually be reached at which additions of the input yield progressively smaller, or diminishing, increases in output.
law of diminishing returns
107
[psych historical schools of thoughts] Sought to analyze the adult "mind", defined as the sum total of experience from birth to the present, in terms of the simplest definable components.
structuralism: Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Tichener
108
[psych historical schools of thoughts] Focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior.
functionalism: William James
109
[psych historical schools of thoughts] Provided the foundation for the modern study of perception. Emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts, therefore, the attributes of the whole are not deducible from analysis of the parts in isolation.
Gestalt Psychology
110
[psychology] what are the historical schools of thoughts?
structuralism functionalism, gestalt psychology, behaviorism, theory of cognitive development, psychoanalysis, humanism
111
[under gestalt psychology] This foundational principle states that you will naturally perceive things in their simplest forms or organization.
Pragnanz
112
[under gestalt psychology] This principle suggests that we naturally group similar items together based on elements like color, size, or orientation.
Similarity
113
[under gestalt psychology] This principle states that objects near each other tend to be viewed as a group.
proximity
114
[under gestalt psychology] According to this, we will perceive elements arranged on the line or curve as related to each other, while elements that are not on the line or curve are seen as separate.
continuity
115
[under gestalt psychology] This suggests that elements that form a closed object will be perceived as a group. We will even fill in missing information to create closure and make sense of an object.
closure
116
[under gestalt psychology] This principle states that we tend to group objects together if they're located in the same bounded area. For example objects inside a box tend to be considered a group.
common region
117
[psych historical schools of thoughts] Suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by internal forces. Focuses on observable behavior.
behaviorism
118
[under behaviorism] A type of conditioned learning which it occurs because of the subject's instinctive responses, either (1) a given stimulation or signal becomes increasingly effective in evoking a response, or (2) a response of course with increasing regularity in the well specified and stable environment.
classical conditioning: Ivan Pavlov
119
[under behaviorism] Actions that are followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. Conversely, actions that result in punishment, or undesirable consequences will be weakened and less likely to appear again in the future.
operant conditioning: B.F. Skinner
120
[under behaviorism] any active behavior that operates upon the environment and generate consequences.
operant
121
[under behaviorism] any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows.
reinforcement
122
[type of reinforcement] a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward.
positive reinforcement
123
[type of reinforcement] a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.
negative reinforcement
124
[under behaviorism] the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows.
punishment
125
[type of punishment] presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.
positive punishment
126
[type of punishment] occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.
negative punishment
127
[under behaviorism] Emphasizes the importance of observing, modeling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. It considers how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behavior. This theory agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning/ However, if it adds 2 important ideas: that mediating processes occur between stimuli and responses; and that behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.
social learning theory: Albert Bandura
128
[psych historical schools of thoughts] explores mental processes and studies how the human brain works, how we think, remember, learn, and how people acquire, perceive, process and store information.
cognitive psychology
129
[under cognitive psychology] suggests that children move through four different stages of mental development. Focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.
theory of cognitive development: jean piaget
130
[stages theory of cognitive development] infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects.
sensorimotor: birth to 2 yrs
131
[stages theory of cognitive development] children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures that represent objects. At this stage, they tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
preoperational stage: 2 to 7 yrs
132
[stages theory of cognitive development] thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete. Children start to use inductive logic, or reasoning from particular pieces of information to arrive at a general principle.
Concrete operational stage: 7 to 11 yrs
133
[stages theory of cognitive development] abstract thought emerges. Starts to use deductive logic, or reasoning from general principles to relate to specific information.
The formal operational stage: 12 and up
134
[under cognitive psychology] focuses on the thinking-process that occurs when one decides whether a behavior is right or wrong. Thus, the theoretical emphasis is on how one decides to respond to a moral dilemma, not what one decides or what one actually does.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
135
[levels of Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development] stage one punishment/obedience orientation, stage two instrumental purpose orientation
level 1: precoventional level
136
[levels of Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development] stage 3 good boy/nice girl orientation, stage 4 law and order orientation
level 2: conventional level
137
[levels of Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development] stage five social contract orientation, stage 6 universal ethical principle orientation
level 3: postconventional or principled level
138
[psych historical schools of thoughts] there are three levels of consciousness: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. Believed that the human mine was composed of three elements: id, ego, superego.
psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud
139
[3 elements of the human mind] consists of primal urges (pleasure principle)
Id
140
[3 elements of the human mind] charged with dealing with reality (reality principle)
Ego
141
[3 elements of the human mind] holds all the ideals and values we internalize (morality principle)
superego
142
[under psychoanalysis] states that personality develops through a series of childhood ages in which the pleasure seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An erogenous zone is characterized as an "area of the body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation."
psychosexual stages of development
143
[stages of psychosexual stages of dev] birth to 1 year old (mouth)
oral stage
144
[stages of psychosexual stages of dev] 3 to 6 years (genitals)
anal stage
145
[stages of psychosexual stages of dev] 6 to puberty (sexual feelings are inactive)
latent period
146
[stages of psychosexual stages of dev] puberty to death (maturing sexual interests)
genital stage
147
any of a group of mental processes that enables the mind to reach compromise solutions to conflicts that is unable to resolve.
defense mechanism
148
[type of defense mechanism] the withdrawal from consciousness of an unwanted idea, affect, or desire by pushing it down, or repressing it, into the unconscious part of the mind.
repression
149
[type of defense mechanism] The fixation in consciousness of an idea, affect, or desire that is opposite to a feared unconscious impulse.
reaction formation
150
[type of defense mechanism] form of defense in which unwanted feelings are displaced onto another person, where they then appear as a threat from the external world.
projection
151
[type of defense mechanism] a return to earlier stages of development and abandoned forms of gratification belonging to them, prompted by dangers or conflicts arising at one of the later stages.
regression
152
[type of defense mechanism] the diversion or deflection of instinctual drives, usually sexual ones, alma into noninstinctual channels.
sublimation
153
[type of defense mechanism] The conscious refusal to perceive the painful facts exists.
denial
154
[type of defense mechanism] The cognitive distortion of “the facts” to make an event or an impulse less threatening.
rationalization
155
[type of defense mechanism] The redirection of an impulse usually aggression onto a powerless substitute target.
displacement
156
[under psychoanalysis] any psychological service provided by a trained professional that primarily uses forms of communication and interaction to assess, diagnosis, and treat dysfunctional emotional reactions, ways of thinking, and behavior patterns.
psychotherapy
157
[under psychotherapy] A patients displacement or projection onto the analyst of those unconscious feelings and wishes originally directed toward important individuals, such as parents, in the patient's childhood.
transference
158
[under psychotherapy] The therapist's unconscious and often conscious reactions to the patient and to the patient's transference. These thoughts and feelings are based on the therapist's own psychological needs and conflicts and may be unexpressed or revealed through conscious responses to patient behavior.
countertransference
159
[psych historical school of thoughts] concerned with the fullest growth of the individual in the areas of love, fulfillment, self-worth, and autonomy.
humanism
160
[under humanism] illustrates an individual's drives in order of decreasing priority or potency but increasing sophistication: physiological needs, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self actualization. Only when the more primitive needs are met can the individual progress to higher levels in the hierarchy.
Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
161
[under humanism] individuals are said to perceive the world according to their own experiences. This perception affects their personality and leads them to direct their behavior to satisfy the needs of the total self. Carl Rogers stressed that, in the development of an individual's personality, the person strives for "self-actualization, self-maintenance, and self-enhancement.
George Kelly's "personal construct" theory and Carl Rogers "self-centered" theory
162
The study of the physiological basis of behavior. Concerned primarily with the relationship between psychological processes and the underlying physiological events.
Biological psychology
163
systems included in biological psychology
nervous system, endocrine system
164
[components of the NS] the basic cellular unit of the nervous system. the axon terminal transmits impulses to other neurons or to effector organs via junctions called synapses or neuromuscular junctions.
165
[parts of neurons] Each neuron is composed of a ______; fine, branching extensions called _______ that received incoming nerve signals, and a single, long extension ______ that conducts nerve impulses to its branching terminal.
cell body, dendrites, axon
166
[components of the NS] The classifications of neurons include
motor neurons, sensory neurons, or interneurons
167
[components of the NS] the long, thin, hollow, cylindrical extension of a neuron that normally carries a nerve impulse away from the cell body. This often branches extensively and maybe surrounded by a protective myelin sheath.
axon or nerve fiber
168
[axon specifications] Each branch of an axon ends in a terminal _______ from which an impulse is transmitted, through discharge of a neurotransmitter, across a synapse to a neighboring neuron.
button (synaptic button/knob)
169
[components of the NS] the specialized junction through which neural signals are transmitted from 1 neuron (presynaptic) to another (post synaptic).
synapse/synaptic junction
170
171
(synapse specifications) In most synapses, the knob-like ending (terminal button) of the Axon of a presynaptic neuron faces the dendrite or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron across a narrow gap called the
synaptic cleft
172
[components of the NS] a group of proteins forming a channel that spans a cell membrane, allowing the passage of ions between the extracellular environment and the cytoplasm of the cell.
ion channel
173
[components of the NS] the insulating layer around many axons that increases the speed of conduction of nerve impulses. It consists of myelin and is laid down by glia, which wrapped themselves around adjacent axons.
myelin sheath/medullary sheath
174
[myelin sheath specifications] The myelin sheath is interrupted by small gaps, called _______ which are spaced about every millimeter along the axon.
nodes of ranvier
175
[components of the NS] nonneuronal tissue in the nervous system that provides structural, nutritional, and other kinds of support to neurons. It may consist of very small cells (microglia) or relatively large ones (macroglia).
glia/neuroglia
176
Macroglia includes
astrocytes, ependymal cells, and the two types of cells that form the myelin sheath around axons: oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system.
177
[components of the NS] a type of nonneuronal peripheral nervous system cell (glia) that forms the myelin sheath around axons
Schwann cells
178
[components of the NS] any of a large number of chemicals that can be released by neurons to mediate transmission of nerve signals across the junctions (synapses) between neurons
neurotransmitters
179
the different types of neurotransmitters are
excitatory, inhibitory, modulatory
180
[type of neurotransmitters] encourage a target cell to take action.
Excitatory neurotransmitters
181
[type of neurotransmitters] decrease the chances of the target cell taking action. In some cases, these neurotransmitters have a relaxation like effect.
Inhibitory neurotransmitters
182
[type of neurotransmitters] can send messages to many neurons at the same time. They also communicate with other neurotransmitters.
modulatory neurotransmitters
183
[type of modulatory transmitter] implicated in brain development, muscle control, and reduced stress response.
Gamma-aminobutyric acid or GABA
184
[type of modulatory transmitter] believed to play many roles, including, but not limited to, temperature regulation, sensory perception, and the onset of sleep.
Serotonin
185
[type of modulatory transmitter] plays an important role in memory formation, learning, mediates skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle contraction.
Acetylcholine
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[type of modulatory transmitter] plays a critical role in cognitive, motor, and sensory functions.
Glutamate
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[type of modulatory transmitter] involved in motivation, learning, pleasure, the control of body movement, and other brain functions.
Dopamine
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[type of modulatory transmitter] produced by the brain, in response to pain or stress, to blunt the sensation of pain.
Endorphins
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[type of modulatory transmitter] ask to increase the force of skeletal muscle contraction and the rate and force of contraction of the heart.
Norepinephrine
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What are the major structures of the braim?
hind brain, the midbrain, and the forebrain
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[major structure of the brain] the posterior of three bulges that appear in the embryonic brain as it develops. The bulge eventually becomes the medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebellum.
hind brain
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[major structure of the brain] what are the parts of the hind brain?
medulla oblangata, pons, cerebellum
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[part of hindbrain] the most inferior or caudal part of the hind brain. It contains many nerve tracts that conduct impulses between the spinal cord and higher brain centers, as well as autonomic nuclei involved in the control of breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.
medulla oblangata
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[part of hindbrain] a part of the brainstem lying between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata, appearing as a swelling on the ventral surface of the brain stem. It consists of bundles of transverse, ascending, and descending nerve fibers and nuclei, including facial nerve nuclei. It serves primarily as a bridge, or transmission structure, between different areas of the nervous system. It also works with the cerebellum and controlling equilibrium and with the cerebral cortex in smoothing and coordinating voluntary movements.
Pons
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[part of hindbrain] a portion of the hind brain dorsal to the rest of the brainstem, to which it is connected by the cerebellar peduncles. This modulates muscular contractions to produce smooth, accurately timed ballistic movement; it helps maintain equilibrium by predicting body positions ahead of actual body movements, and it is required for some kinds of motor conditioning.
cerebellum
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[major structure of the brain] relatively small region of the upper brainstem that connects the forebrain and hindbrain. It contains the tectum, tegmentum, and substantia nigra.
midbrain
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[part of midbrain] the roof of the midbrain, dorsal to the cerebral aqueduct. This contains a superior colliculi, which acts as relay and reflex centers for the visual system, and the inferior colliculi, which are sensory centers for the auditory system.
tectum
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[part of midbrain] the central core of the midbrain and pons. It contains sensory and motor tracts passing through the midbrain and several nuclei, including the oculomotor nucleus, red nucleus, and subthalamic nucleus.
tegmentum
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[part of midbrain] a region of gray matter in the midbrain, named for its dark pigmentation, that sends dopaminergic neurons to the basal ganglia. Depletion of dopaminergic neurons in this region is implicated in Parkinson's disease.
substantia nigra
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[major structure of the brain] develops from the anterior section in the embryo, containing the cerebrum and the diencephalon.
forebrain
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[forebrain] the cerebrum comprises of the
cerebral hemispheres
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[forebrain] the diencephalon comprises of the
thalamus and hypothalamus
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[part of the forebrain] the largest part of the brain, forming most of the forebrain and lying in front of and above the cerebellum.
cerebrum
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what bridges the 2 cerebral hemispheres in the cerebrum?
corpus callosum
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each hemisphere of the cerebrum is divided into ____ main lobes
4
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the 4 main lobes of each hemisphere in the cerebrum
parietal, temporal, occipital, frontal
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[part of the forebrain] a group of nuclei (neuron cell bodies) deep within the cerebral hemispheres of the brain. These are involved in the generation of goal- directed voluntary movement.
Basal Ganglia
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[part of the forebrain] almond-shape structure in the temporal lobe that is a component of the limbic system and considered part of the basal ganglia. It comprises 2 main groups of nuclei, and through widespread connections with other brain areas plus numerous viscerosensory and autonomic functions as well as an important role in memory, emotion, perception of threat, and fear learning.
amygdala
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the 2 main groups of nuclei in the amygdala
corticomedial group, basolateral group
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[part of the forebrain] a sea horse-shaped part of the forebrain, in the basal medial region of the temporal lobe, that is important for declarative memory and learning.
hippocampus
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[major structure of the brain] the posterior part of the forebrain that includes the thalamus, epithalamus, and hypothalamus.
diencephalon
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[major structure of the brain] a mass of gray matter. It consists of a collection of sensory, motor, autonomic, and associational nuclei, serving as a relay for nerve impulses traveling between the spinal cord and brain stem and the cerebral cortex.
thalamus
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[major structure of the brain] it is immediately above and behind the thalamus. It includes the pineal gland and the posterior commissure.
epithalamus
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[part of the epithalamus] a small, cone-shaped gland attached via a stalk to the posterior wall of the third ventricle of the brain; It is part of the epithalamus. In amphibians and reptiles, the gland appears to function as a part of the visual system. In mammals, it secretes melatonin and is an important component of the circadian system regulating biological rhythms
pineal gland
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[major structure of the brain] it contains nuclei with primary control of the autonomic functions of the body. It also helps integrate autonomic activity into appropriate responses to internal and external stimuli. Additionally, it is involved in appetite, thirst, sleep, and sexuality.
hypothalamus
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either of the symmetrical halves of the cerebrum (cerebral hemisphere) or the cerebellum.
hemispheres
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[under hemispheres] a large tract of nerve fibers connecting the cerebral hemispheres. It is the principal connection between the two sides of the brain.
corpus callosum
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[under hemispheres] a structure that forms a bridge between the two cerebral hemispheres or the halves of the spinal cord. Examples include the two key landmarks in brain mapping: the anterior commissure, a bundle of myelinated fibres that joins the temporal lobes and contains fibres of the olfactory tract; and the posterior commissure, a bundle of myelinated fibres that connects regions in the midbrain and diencephalon.
commissure
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[under hemispheres] concerned with sensation and perception, motor control, and higher-level cognitive processes.
left hemisphere
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[under hemispheres] Also concerned with sensation and perception, motor control, and higher-level cognitive processes. In most people, the right hemisphere has greater responsibility for spatial attention. Individuals who have right- region dominance are theorized to be more creative, intuitive, and thoughtful.
right hemisphere
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add subdivision of the brain, particularly rounded and surrounded by distinct structural boundaries, such as fissures.
lobes
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[type of lobes] it is concerned with motor and higher order executive functions, defined as cognitive processes of planning, decision making, problem solving, action sequencing, task assignment and organization, effortful and persistent goal pursuit, inhibition of competing impulses, flexibility in goal selection, and goal-conflict resolution. These often involve the use of language, judgment, abstraction and concept formation, and logic and reasoning.
frontal lobe
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[type of lobes] participate in somatosensory activities, such as the discrimination of size, shape, and texture of objects; visual activities, such as visually guided actions; and auditory activities, such as speech perception.
parietal
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[type of lobes] contains the auditory projection and auditory association areas and also areas for higher order visual processing. also contains regions important for memory formation.
temporal
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[type of lobes] contains several visual areas that receive and process visual stimuli, and it is involved in basic visual functions as well as higher level ones. A region of it, the Occipital Phase Area has been identified as crucial to face recognition.
occipital
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the branch of psychology devoted to the study, assessment, treatment, and prevention of maladaptive behavior.
abnormal psychology
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the scientific study of mental disorders including their theoretical underpinnings, etiology, progression, symptomatology, diagnosis, and treatment.
psychopathology
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the study of how an individual's thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by the actual, imagined, or symbolically represented presence of other people.
social psychology
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[social influences] the adjustment of one's opinions, judgments, or actions so that they become more consistent with the opinions, judgments, or actions of other people or the normative standards of a social group or situation. This includes temporary outward acquiescence as well as more enduring private acceptance.
conformity
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[type of conformity] a change in a person's behavior in response to a direct request.
compliance
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[types of compliance] one uses an odd request to surprise or confuse another person before following up with a new framing of the same request
Disrupt- then- reframe technique
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[types of compliance] an extreme initial request is presented immediately before a more moderate target request.
Door- in- the-face technique
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[types of compliance] a minor initial request is presented immediately before a more substantial target request.
Foot-in- the- door technique
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[types of compliance] first obtaining agreement or request and then revealing the hidden costs of this request.
Low- ball technique
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[types of compliance] consists of presenting an initial large request and then, before the person can respond, immediately making the request more attractive by reducing it to a more modest target request or by offering some additional benefit.
That's- not- all technique
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[type of conformity] actual change in an individual's belief, attitudes, or behaviors that occurs as a result of social influence. Occurs when the targeted individual is personally convinced by a persuasive message or internalizes and accepts as his or her own the beliefs expressed by other group members. Also called private acceptance.
conversion
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[social interaction] an apparently unselfish behavior that provides benefit to others at some cost to the individual. In humans, it covers a wide range of behaviors, including volunteerism and martyrdom.
altruism
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[social interaction] types of group behavior
deindividuation, bystander effect, diffusion of responsibility
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[type of group behavior] an experiential state characterized by loss of self- awareness, altered perceptions, and a reduction of inner restraints the results in the performance of unusual and sometimes antisocial behavior.
Deindividuation
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[type of group behavior] A phenomenon in which people fail to offer needed help and emergencies, especially when other people are present in the same setting.
Bystander effect
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[type of group behavior] the diminished sense of responsibility often experienced by individuals in groups and social collectives.
Diffusion of Responsilibity
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[type of love] sexual or passionate love
eros
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[type of love] friendship or shared goodwill
Philia
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[type of love] familial love; Fondness born out of familiarity or dependency
Storge
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[type of love] universal love; Love for strangers, nature, or god
Agape
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[type of love] playful or uncommitted love
Ludus
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[type of love] practical love founded on reason or duty
Pragma
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[type of love] self- love
Philautia
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a complex state of feeling that results in physical and psychological changes that influence thought and behavior. Emotionality is associated with a range of psychological phenomena, including temperament, personality, mood, and motivation.
emotion
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[theory] emotions exist because they serve an adaptive role. Emotions motivate people to respond quickly to stimuli in the environment, which helps improve the chances of success and survival.
Evolutionary theory
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[theory] suggests that seeing an external stimulus leads to a physiological reaction. One's emotional reaction is dependent upon how he or she interprets those physical reactions.
James-Lange Theory
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[theory] proposes that emotions results when the thalamus sends a message to the brain in response to stimuli resulting to a physiological reaction. At the same time, the brain also receives signals triggering the emotional experience.
Cannon-Bard Theory
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[theory] also known as the two-factor theory of emotion. It suggests that the physiological arousal occurs first, and then the individual must identify the reason for this arousal to experience and label it as an emotion. The stimulus leads to physiological response that is then cognitively interpreted and labeled, resulting in an emotion.
Schachter-Singer Theory
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a lay term that is widely used to denote the unconscious or preconscious mind as described by Sigmund Freud, or the general idea of a subliminal consciousness.
Subconscious
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a level of consciousness with at which a stimulus may affect behavior even though the person is not explicitly aware of it.
Sublimal Consciousness
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A physiological and psychologically conscious state that occurs during sleep. Occurs most often, but by no means exclusively during periods of REM sleep. Those that occurred during NREM sleep are characterized primarily by thoughts and emotions, whereas REM dreams are characterized primarily by visual imagery, a sense of motion in space, intense emotions, and the belief that dream characters, events, and situations are real.
Dream
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the stage of sleep in which most dreaming tends to occur. Brain activity resembles wakefulness, hence, it is also known as paradoxical sleep, except for inhibition of most skeletal and cranial muscles.
Rapid-Eye-Movement REM Sleep
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four sleep stages in which in which there is an absence of rapid eye movement and dreams are relatively uncommon and usually cannot be recalled upon awakening.
Non-Rapid-Eye-Movement NREM Sleep
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profound and extended contemplation or reflection in order to achieve focused attention or an otherwise altered state of consciousness and to gain insight into oneself in the world.
Meditation
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a founding figure in the history of western philosophy, revered for his single- minded dedication to truth and virtue, for his great argumentative skill, and for his death, which came to be viewed as a martyrdom. Held that virtue is a kind of knowledge and that anyone who knows what virtue is cannot help but act virtuously.
Socrates
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the most gifted and accomplished of Socrates’s students. His foremost contribution to philosophy was his theory of forms which posited a realm of ideal, perfect, and changeless entities standing behind the world of ordinary experience.
Plato
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made fundamental and pioneering contributions to every major field of philosophy, especially metaphysics, ethics, logic, the philosophy of mind, the philosophy of science, moral psychology, political philosophy, and aesthetics. He created the field of formal logic, devising a system of reasoning known as syllogistic that was not superseded until the mid 19th century. He was in addition the first genuine empirical scientist in history, being the first person to distinguish the major scientific fields and performing in all of them theoretical and observational work of lasting importance.
Aristotle
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traditionally considered the father of modern philosophy for rejecting completely the worldview of aristotelian scholasticism and developing in its place a new science based on mechanistic principles, a new metaphysics based on an original form of mind- body dualism, a new epistemology based on methodical doubt and the theory of innate ideas. He was also a great mathematician. He is perhaps best known as the author of the famous phrase cogito, ergo sum which he used as a foundation of absolute certainty on which to reestablish human knowledge of the self, God, and the external physical world.
Rene Descartes
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Scottish philosopher who conceived of philosophy as the inductive science of human nature, and he concluded that humans are creatures more of sensitive and practical sentiment than of reason.
David Hume
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German philosopher where his comprehensive and systematic work in epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics greatly influenced all subsequent philosophy. One of the foremost thinkers of the Enlightenment.
Immanuel Kant
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French philosopher, developed positivism, or the theory that theology and metaphysics are earlier imperfect modes of knowledge and that positive knowledge is based on natural phenomena and their properties and relations as verified with the empirical sciences. He came to appreciate the need for a basic and unifying social science that would both explain existing social organizations and guide social planning for a better future. This new science he called sociology for the first time.
Auguste Comte
