social psychology exam 2

Question 1

attitudes

Answer 1

attitudes -> behavior
Evaluative beliefs and feelings regarding objects, people, or events that predispose particular responses

Question 2

Social desirability

Answer 2

social forces -> behavior

rather than report their true attitudes, people may report attitudes they think others want to hear
“I love everybody and care deeply about all the world’s social problems.”

Question 3

Bogus Pipeline

Answer 3

procedure that prompts people into disclosing their true attitudes. Usually involves use of a fake polygraph or other device that participants are led to believe provides direct feedback regarding their truthfulness.

Question 4

Cognitive dissonance

Answer 4

1. Inconsistencies among one’s cognitions (i.e., thoughts, attitudes, perceived actions) lead to
2. an aversive state (dissonance) that leads to
3. efforts to restore consistency (by altering a cognition, such as an attitude).

Question 5

When two cognitions are inconsistent,
or a cognition is inconsistent with an
action

Answer 5

something must be changed

Question 6

In the case of action/behavior, its too late to change the action

Answer 6

so the cognition (attitude) must be changed

Question 7

Insufficient justification

Answer 7

Cognitive dissonance is greater when the inconsistent behavior is seen as freely chosen, and not the result of strong rewards/threats, i.e., when external justification is insufficient

Question 8

Effort justification

Answer 8

a type of cog. dissonance reduction where putting great (perhaps unjustified) effort into achieving something can make us value it more

Question 9

Reducing post-decisional regret

Answer 9

The free-choice paradigm is a classic research design showing that when people make a difficult choice between two alternatives, they often worry, “Maybe I made the wrong choice?”, experiencing something like dissonance

And they reduce the dissonance by spreading the alternatives, mentally emphasizing the positives of the one they chose, and the negatives of the option they did not choose.

Question 10

The “Foot in the door” technique.

Answer 10

People who have first agreed to a small request are often more willing to comply with a later, larger request

Question 11

The “Low ball” sales technique.

Answer 11

People who have agreed to an initial request/deal will often still comply when the requester raises the cost,
even when they would not have agreed to the terms initially

Question 12

Self-perception Theory

Answer 12

Behavior ->Attitudes

It’s not that there is a negative feeling of arousal generated by inconsistency

We merely revise attitudes because we infer our own attitudes from our behavior (just like any observer would).

Take away the incentive, there’s insufficient justification to do activity

Question 13

Intrinsic motivation

Answer 13

people naturally engage in many behaviors for their own sake (no external rewards needed)

Question 14

Self-determination theory explanation

Answer 14

Feeling coerced by rewards thwarts our need for autonomy (i.e., we feel unfree) and spoils the intrinsic motivation.

Question 15

behavior -> attitudes

Answer 15

2 theories

1. cognitive dissonance theory
2. self-perception theory

Question 16

Norms

Answer 16

(i.e., customary rules/standards of behavior that coordinate our interactions with others) can be powerful

Question 17

Injunctive norm:

Answer 17

belief about what behaviors are approved/disapproved of in one’s culture

Question 18

Descriptive norm:

Answer 18

belief about what most people typically do

Question 19

Role

Answer 19

can be powerful too

a set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave

Zimbardo Prison Study

Question 20

Conformity

Answer 20

A change in behavior or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure

Two ways of conforming: Mere outward compliance or actual inward acceptance.

Question 21

Compliance

Answer 21

conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request while privately disagreeing

Question 22

Acceptance

Answer 22

conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord with social pressure

Question 23

Normative influence

Answer 23

motivation to conform in order to avoid disapproval or to gain social rewards (linked with compliance).

Sherif’s studies of the “autokinetic” phenomenon demonstrated how quickly groups converge on arbitrary norms.

Question 24

Informational influence

Answer 24

motivation to conform because other people are a good source of accurate information about reality (linked with acceptance).

Question 25

Factors that influence conformity

Answer 25

1. Group size: Larger group = more conformity, up to a point (i.e., up to 5 members; more than 5, no difference). 2. Group unanimity: If even one other person gives the right answer, much less conformity. 3. Having to go public increases conformity (versus private response). 4. Having made a prior commitment reduces conformity. 5. Status: lower status people find it harder to resist conforming than higher-status people 6. Cohesiveness: the more cohesive a group is, the harder it is to resist conforming

Question 26

Cohesiveness

Answer 26

the extent to which members of a group feel bound together; “we feeling”

Question 27

Obedience

Answer 27

complying with an explicit command. learner, teacher and experimenter study

Question 28

Factors influencing obedience in Milgram Studies

Answer 28

1. The distance between the “teacher” and the “learner.” 2. The distance and legitimacy of the authority figure (experimenter). 3. The legitimacy of the Institution (Yale vs. downtown warehouse). 4. Presence of other “teachers” who resist authority

Question 29

Two ways in which a study can be realistic

Answer 29

1. mundane realism 2. experimental realism

Question 30

Mundane realism:

Answer 30

degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations

Question 31

Experimental realism

Answer 31

degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves its participants

Question 32

Reactance

Answer 32

Individuals who are more prone to reactance are less likely to comply/obey Reactance: motive to protect or restore one’s sense of freedom Reactance is central to notion of “reverse psychology”

Question 33

Persuasion

Answer 33

Process by which a message leads to a change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors …explains how a persuasive message persuades by means of two routes: Central and Peripheral

Question 34

Central Route

Answer 34

people think carefully and critically about the content of the message and find it convincing Involves “elaboration” of the message through extensive conscious processing The likelihood of elaboration depends on: -motivation to think about the message -ability to think about the message Messages targeted at individuals presumably motivated to think carefully

Question 35

Peripheral Route:

Answer 35

people assess superficial peripheral cues associated with the message (e.g., is the communicator attractive or does he/she seem like an expert?) involves nonconscious processing and heuristics If you are unable or unwilling to “elaborate” on a message extensively, you may still be persuaded Ads on TV, billboards, magazines are more likely to target peripheral route

Question 36

Cialdini’s Six “Principles of Persuasion” (they rely onperipheral cues)

Answer 36

(1) Reciprocity: We feel obligated to repay favors “I owe them, so I’ll agree with their argument/request/etc.…” (2) Consistency: People want to be consistent with their past thoughts, behaviors, & commitments “I did/thought/felt something in support of a similar issue in the past, so I’ll support this too.” (3) Social proof: social influence; example of others; peer pressure “If they’re all doing/supporting it, then I should too…” (4) Liking: The communicator is likable (friendly, physically attractive, charismatic, someone we know/trust…) “I really like X and have a good feeling about this, so I’ll agree to it.” (5) Authority: Communicator seems to possess greater expertise/experience/talent/assertiveness/power, so they probably know what they’re talking about (6) Scarcity: If something is in limited supply, we tend to value it more “Act now, available for a limited time only…”

Question 37

Four influences on persuasion:

Answer 37

1.Who (the source), 2.What (the message), 3.How (the medium), 4.Who’s listening (the audience).

Question 38

Who (the Source):

Answer 38

A communicator with higher source credibility (i.e., the audience perceives him/her as expert and trustworthy) will tend to be more persuasive A communicator’s credibility is higher when s/he talks fast and directly, and makes eye contact. Being thought an expert and being attractive & likable also helps. So does perceived similarity to target.

Question 39

What (the Message Content):

Answer 39

Messages evoking good feelings can help persuasion. Messages evoking fear are particularly persuasive, if the target can perceive a realistic means of avoiding the feared outcome. Classical conditioning: By associating X and Y, feelings about X transfer to Y. Acknowledging both sides works best if listener is initially opposed. “I know you may be thinking…., but…” Going first helps (a primacy effect). But, if there is a delay, going last can be better (a recency effect).

Question 40

How (the Medium):

Answer 40

Channel of communication matters (written, audio, video, live). More lifelike channels tend to be more persuasive. But written channel is best for complex messages Thus, type of medium interacts with message-difficulty to predict persuasion. (In real life, almost all “main effects” are qualified by “interactions.”)

Question 41

Statistical Interaction (aka Moderation)

Answer 41

the relation between two variables varies depending on the value of a third variable

Question 42

To Whom (the Audience):

Answer 42

The young are more easily persuaded. Also those with less education/intelligence need for cognition

Question 43

need for cognition

Answer 43

a personality trait reflecting an individual’s tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful thought about and analysis of ideas Low need -> Peripheral High need -> Central People with a high need for cognition tend to be more persuadable through strong central route arguments (and less persuadable through the peripheral route) than those low in need for cognition.

Question 44

When are we most likely to engage in central route processing of attempts to persuade?

Answer 44

When the issue is important

Question 45

When are we most likely to engage in peripheral route processing of attempts to persuade?

Answer 45

When the issue is insignificant or trivial.

Question 46

sleeper effect

Answer 46

Delayed persuasion in which a discounted message becomes effective because we remember the message but forget why we discounted it.

Question 47

Cults & Persuasion

Answer 47

Cult/New religious movement: 1)distinctive ritual beliefs related to devotion to someone or something 2)isolation 3)charismatic leader

Question 48

How to start a cult: 6 tips

Answer 48

1. Be credible, attractive, charismatic; 2. offer utopia; 3. use foot-in-door (escalating requirements); 4. cut them off from their past; 5. use initiation rites (cohesion) 6. focus on young, middle-class;

Question 49

How can we protect ourselves (and others) from harmful persuasion techniques?

Answer 49

Strengthen personal commitment to attitudes * make public statements of commitment * develop counterarguments -attitude inoculation helps with this

Question 50

Attitude Inoculation

Answer 50

Expose people’s current attitudes to weak attack. - Challenge their beliefs - Help them develop counterarguments Like a vaccine, this strengthens the desired attitude and trains the person to resist stronger attacks and persuasion attempts.

Question 51

What is a group

Answer 51

Two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as us

Question 52

Social facilitation

Answer 52

Original definition: Performing better when others are around Current definition: The strengthening of the dominant responses in the presence of others.

Question 53

Dominant responses

Answer 53

The response most likely for that person for that task * With a simple (vs. difficult task) the dominant response is to perform well. – Same for a task that was originally difficult, but now, as a result of practice, is habitual/automatic/well-learned – So the presence of others improves performance in such cases * But when the task is difficult, the dominant response is to struggle – So the presence of others impairs performance

Question 54

Social loafing:

Answer 54

he tendency to exert less effort the more group members are jointly responsible for a task

Question 55

Diffusion of responsibility:

Answer 55

feeling that responsibility is spread over multiple people, so...“It’s not my problem.” Weakened relationship between personal efforts & personal outcomes.

Question 56

What prevents social loafing?

Answer 56

- If one is tight with other group-members (high cohesion) - If the task is very challenging, appealing, or involving (high task involvement)

Question 57

Crowds of people can do great harm

Answer 57

“By the mere fact that he forms part of an organized crowd, a man descends several rungs in the ladder of civilization.” Gustav LeBon (1895) Examples: * Lynch mobs attacking African-Americans in U.S. * Pogroms against Jews in Eastern Europe

Question 58

Deindividuation

Answer 58

The reduced sense of individual identity, self- awareness, or self-control that comes over a person when he or she is in a large group. – “The group has a mind of its own.” – An emergent property of groups (not just the sum of the parts) – more common the more anonymous people feel

Question 59

Curbing deindividuation

Answer 59

* Discourage substances that reduce self- awareness (e.g., alcohol) * Increase self-awareness (e.g., mirrors/cameras, bright lights, make people wear nametags)

Question 60

Are group decisions riskier?

Answer 60

James Stoner study (1961) -Presented participants with scenarios involving risk and asked them to choose. -Compared to individuals, groups tended to make riskier decisions.

Question 61

Group polarization

Answer 61

Group-produced enhancement of members’ preexisting tendencies If most individuals were already leaning one way on an issue (risk-taking, risk averse, socially liberal, or whatever), they’ll be leaning more that way after group discussion why does it happen? informational influence normative influence As a result of these forces, those initially supportive, those opposed, and those in the middle tend to find themselves moving in the direction of greater support for the view initially favored by the majority -put differently, the group moves away from the moderate middle and closer to “the extreme”

Question 62

group informational influence

Answer 62

group discussion presents members with more evidence confirming the views held by a majority initially, and less evidence opposing it

Question 63

group normative influence

Answer 63

Once the majority position becomes clear, members want to speak up in support of it, assuming they will be thought a good group member by doing so -Members often “compete” to publicly support the popular view

Question 64

Minority Influence

Answer 64

Difficult for those in the minority to convert others (the majority) to their viewpoint. Minority slowness effect

Question 65

minority slowness effect

Answer 65

tendency for people with minority views to express themselves less quickly than those in the majority

Question 66

Minority Influence

Answer 66

The minority can sometimes influence the majority to change its attitudes Factors that can increase influence of minority Self-confidence -“high-status” (wealthy, powerful, educated, etc.) people tend to be more self-confident and more influential Consistency (i.e., they don’t waver) If a member of the majority defects