social psychology exam 2 Flashcards
attitudes
attitudes -> behavior
Evaluative beliefs and feelings regarding objects, people, or events that predispose particular responses
Social desirability
social forces -> behavior
rather than report their true attitudes, people may report attitudes they think others want to hear
“I love everybody and care deeply about all the world’s social problems.”
Bogus Pipeline
procedure that prompts people into disclosing their true attitudes. Usually involves use of a fake polygraph or other device that participants are led to believe provides direct feedback regarding their truthfulness.
Cognitive dissonance
- Inconsistencies among one’s cognitions (i.e., thoughts, attitudes, perceived actions) lead to
- an aversive state (dissonance) that leads to
- efforts to restore consistency (by altering a cognition, such as an attitude).
When two cognitions are inconsistent,
or a cognition is inconsistent with an
action
something must be changed
In the case of action/behavior, its too late to change the action
so the cognition (attitude) must be changed
Insufficient justification
Cognitive dissonance is greater when the inconsistent behavior is seen as freely chosen, and not the result of strong rewards/threats, i.e., when external justification is insufficient
Effort justification
a type of cog. dissonance reduction where putting great (perhaps unjustified) effort into achieving something can make us value it more
Reducing post-decisional regret
The free-choice paradigm is a classic research design showing that when people make a difficult choice between two alternatives, they often worry, “Maybe I made the wrong choice?”, experiencing something like dissonance
And they reduce the dissonance by spreading the alternatives, mentally emphasizing the positives of the one they chose, and the negatives of the option they did not choose.
The “Foot in the door” technique.
People who have first agreed to a small request are often more willing to comply with a later, larger request
The “Low ball” sales technique.
People who have agreed to an initial request/deal will often still comply when the requester raises the cost,
even when they would not have agreed to the terms initially
Self-perception Theory
Behavior ->Attitudes
It’s not that there is a negative feeling of arousal generated by inconsistency
We merely revise attitudes because we infer our own attitudes from our behavior (just like any observer would).
Take away the incentive, there’s insufficient justification to do activity
Intrinsic motivation
people naturally engage in many behaviors for their own sake (no external rewards needed)
Self-determination theory explanation
Feeling coerced by rewards thwarts our need for autonomy (i.e., we feel unfree) and spoils the intrinsic motivation.
behavior -> attitudes
2 theories
- cognitive dissonance theory
- self-perception theory
Norms
(i.e., customary rules/standards of behavior that coordinate our interactions with others) can be powerful
Injunctive norm:
belief about what behaviors are approved/disapproved of in one’s culture
Descriptive norm:
belief about what most people typically do
Role
can be powerful too
a set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave
Zimbardo Prison Study
Conformity
A change in behavior or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure
Two ways of conforming: Mere outward compliance or actual inward acceptance.
Compliance
conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request while privately disagreeing
Acceptance
conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord with social pressure
Normative influence
motivation to conform in order to avoid disapproval or to gain social rewards (linked with compliance).
Sherif’s studies of the “autokinetic” phenomenon demonstrated how quickly groups converge on arbitrary norms.
Informational influence
motivation to conform because other people are a good source of accurate information about reality (linked with acceptance).
Factors that influence conformity
- Group size: Larger group = more conformity, up to a point (i.e., up to 5 members; more than 5, no difference).
- Group unanimity: If even one other person gives the right answer, much less conformity.
- Having to go public increases conformity (versus private response).
- Having made a prior commitment reduces conformity.
- Status: lower status people find it harder to resist conforming than higher-status people
- Cohesiveness: the more cohesive a group is, the harder it is to resist conforming
Cohesiveness
the extent to which members of a group feel bound together; “we feeling”
Obedience
complying with an explicit command.
learner, teacher and experimenter study
Factors influencing obedience in Milgram Studies
- The distance between the “teacher” and the “learner.”
- The distance and legitimacy of the authority figure (experimenter).
- The legitimacy of the Institution (Yale vs. downtown warehouse).
- Presence of other “teachers” who resist authority
Two ways in which a study can be realistic
- mundane realism
- experimental realism
Mundane realism:
degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations
Experimental realism
degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves its participants
Reactance
Individuals who are more prone to reactance are less likely to comply/obey
Reactance: motive to protect or restore one’s sense of freedom
Reactance is central to notion of “reverse psychology”
Persuasion
Process by which a message leads to a change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors
…explains how a persuasive message persuades by means of two routes:
Central and Peripheral
Central Route
people think carefully and critically about the content of the message and find it convincing
Involves “elaboration” of the message through extensive conscious processing
The likelihood of elaboration depends on:
-motivation to think about the message
-ability to think about the message
Messages targeted at individuals presumably motivated to think carefully
Peripheral Route:
people assess superficial peripheral cues associated with the message (e.g., is the communicator attractive or does he/she seem like an expert?)
involves nonconscious processing and heuristics
If you are unable or unwilling to “elaborate” on a message extensively, you may still be persuaded
Ads on TV, billboards, magazines are more likely to target peripheral route
Cialdini’s Six “Principles of Persuasion” (they rely onperipheral cues)
(1) Reciprocity:
We feel obligated to repay favors
“I owe them, so I’ll agree with their argument/request/etc.…”
(2) Consistency:
People want to be consistent with their past thoughts, behaviors, & commitments
“I did/thought/felt something in support of a similar issue in the past, so I’ll support this too.”
(3) Social proof:
social influence; example of others; peer pressure
“If they’re all doing/supporting it, then I should too…”
(4) Liking:
The communicator is likable (friendly, physically attractive, charismatic, someone we know/trust…)
“I really like X and have a good feeling about this, so I’ll agree to it.”
(5) Authority:
Communicator seems to possess greater expertise/experience/talent/assertiveness/power, so they probably know what they’re talking about
(6) Scarcity:
If something is in limited supply, we tend to value it more
“Act now, available for a limited time only…”
Four influences on persuasion:
1.Who (the source),
2.What (the message),
3.How (the medium),
4.Who’s listening (the audience).
Who (the Source):
A communicator with higher source credibility (i.e., the audience perceives him/her as expert and trustworthy) will tend to be more persuasive
A communicator’s credibility is higher when s/he talks fast and directly, and makes eye contact.
Being thought an expert and being attractive & likable also helps.
So does perceived similarity to target.
What (the Message Content):
Messages evoking good feelings can help persuasion.
Messages evoking fear are particularly persuasive, if the target can perceive a realistic means of avoiding the feared outcome.
Classical conditioning: By associating X and Y, feelings about X transfer to Y.
Acknowledging both sides works best if listener is initially opposed.
“I know you may be thinking…., but…”
Going first helps (a primacy effect).
But, if there is a delay, going last can be better (a recency effect).
How (the Medium):
Channel of communication matters (written, audio, video, live).
More lifelike channels tend to be more persuasive.
But written channel is best for complex messages
Thus, type of medium interacts with message-difficulty to predict persuasion.
(In real life, almost all “main effects” are qualified by “interactions.”)
Statistical Interaction (aka Moderation)
the relation between two variables varies depending on the value of a third variable
To Whom (the Audience):
The young are more easily persuaded.
Also those with less education/intelligence
need for cognition
need for cognition
a personality trait reflecting an individual’s tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful thought about and analysis of ideas
Low need -> Peripheral
High need -> Central
People with a high need for cognition tend to be more persuadable through strong central route arguments (and less persuadable through the peripheral route) than those low in need for cognition.
When are we most likely to engage in central route processing of attempts
to persuade?
When the issue is important
When are we most likely to engage in peripheral route processing of attempts to persuade?
When the issue is insignificant or
trivial.
sleeper effect
Delayed persuasion in which a discounted message becomes
effective because we remember the message but forget why we
discounted it.
Cults & Persuasion
Cult/New religious movement:
1)distinctive ritual beliefs related to devotion to someone or
something
2)isolation
3)charismatic leader
How to start a cult: 6
tips
- Be credible, attractive,
charismatic; - offer utopia;
- use foot-in-door (escalating requirements);
- cut them off from their past;
- use initiation rites (cohesion)
- focus on young, middle-class;
How can we protect ourselves (and others) from harmful persuasion
techniques?
Strengthen personal commitment
to attitudes
* make public statements of commitment
* develop counterarguments
-attitude inoculation helps with this
Attitude Inoculation
Expose people’s current attitudes to weak attack.
- Challenge their beliefs
- Help them develop counterarguments
Like a vaccine, this strengthens the
desired attitude and trains the person to resist stronger attacks and
persuasion attempts.
What is a group
Two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as us
Social facilitation
Original definition: Performing better when
others are around
Current definition: The strengthening of the dominant responses in the
presence of others.
Dominant responses
The response most likely for that person for that task
* With a simple (vs. difficult task) the dominant response is to perform well.
– Same for a task that was originally difficult, but now, as a result of practice, is
habitual/automatic/well-learned
– So the presence of others improves performance in such cases
* But when the task is difficult, the dominant response is to struggle
– So the presence of others impairs performance
Social loafing:
he tendency to exert less
effort the more group members are jointly
responsible for a task
Diffusion of responsibility:
feeling
that responsibility is spread over
multiple people, so…“It’s not my
problem.”
Weakened relationship between
personal efforts & personal outcomes.
What prevents social loafing?
- If one is tight with other group-members
(high cohesion) - If the task is very challenging, appealing,
or involving (high task involvement)
Crowds of people can do great harm
“By the mere fact that he forms part of an
organized crowd, a man descends several rungs in
the ladder of civilization.”
Gustav LeBon (1895)
Examples:
* Lynch mobs attacking African-Americans in U.S.
* Pogroms against Jews in Eastern Europe
Deindividuation
The reduced sense of individual identity, self-
awareness, or self-control that comes over a
person when he or she is in a large group.
– “The group has a mind of its own.”
– An emergent property of groups (not just the sum
of the parts)
– more common the more anonymous people feel
Curbing deindividuation
- Discourage substances that reduce self-
awareness (e.g., alcohol) - Increase self-awareness (e.g., mirrors/cameras,
bright lights, make people wear nametags)
Are group decisions riskier?
James Stoner study (1961)
-Presented participants with scenarios involving risk and asked them to choose.
-Compared to individuals, groups tended to make riskier decisions.
Group polarization
Group-produced enhancement of members’ preexisting tendencies
If most individuals were already leaning one way on an issue (risk-taking, risk averse, socially liberal, or whatever), they’ll be leaning more that way after group discussion
why does it happen?
informational influence
normative influence
As a result of these forces, those initially supportive, those opposed, and those in the middle tend to find themselves moving in the direction of greater support for the view initially favored by the majority
-put differently, the group moves away from the moderate middle and closer to “the extreme”
group informational influence
group discussion presents members with more evidence confirming the views held by a majority initially, and less evidence opposing it
group normative influence
Once the majority position becomes clear, members want to speak up in support of it, assuming they will be thought a good group member by doing so
-Members often “compete” to publicly support the popular view
Minority Influence
Difficult for those in the minority to convert others (the majority) to their viewpoint.
Minority slowness effect
minority slowness effect
tendency for people with minority views to express themselves less quickly than those in the majority
Minority Influence
The minority can sometimes influence the majority to change its attitudes
Factors that can increase influence of minority
Self-confidence
-“high-status” (wealthy, powerful, educated, etc.) people tend to be more self-confident and more influential
Consistency (i.e., they don’t waver)
If a member of the majority defects
