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Social Psychology > Social Psychology Ch 6 7 & 8 Test > Flashcards

Social Psychology Ch 6 7 & 8 Test Flashcards

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1
Q

Attitude

A

An evaluation of objects of thought - a person, object, institution, or social issue.
It can be positive or negative.
Comprised of three components:
Affective
Cognitive
Behavioural

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2
Q

affectively based attitude

A

is based primarily on people’s emotions and feelings about the attitude object.
Affectively based attitudes come from many sources, but we can group them into one family because they are
- linked to people’s values.
- not the result of rational analyses of an issue.
- not governed by logic.

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3
Q

cognitively based attitude

A

is based primarily on a person’s beliefs about the properties of an attitude object.

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4
Q

how do we form attitudes?

A
  • Information
    - classical conditioning
    - operant conditioning
    - observational learning/modelling
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5
Q

behaviourally based attitude

A

is based primarily on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object.

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6
Q

classical conditioning

A

A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that elicits a specific response, and eventually the neutral stimulus elicits that response on its own. Mere exposure: The more we are exposed to something, the more we like it.

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7
Q

operant conditioning

A

Behaviour that is rewarded increases, and behaviour that is punished decreases.
Can influence attitude formation.

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7
Q

explicit attitudes

A

We can consciously endorse and easily report.
Are likely rooted in recent experiences.

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8
Q

observational learning

A

Occurs when we form attitudes by watching how others act towards a given object, and in turn adopt those views ourselves.
Most effective when we are observing someone similar to us.
We often model what we observe in the media.

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9
Q

implicit attitudes

A

Involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious; expressed in subtle automatic responses.
Tend to be rooted in childhood experiences.

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10
Q

attitude accessibility

A

refers to the strength of the association between an object and an evaluation of it.

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11
Q

theory of planned behaviour

A

maintains that the best predictor of people’s deliberate behaviour is their intention.

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12
Q

persuasive communication

A

A communication advocating a particular side of an issue.

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13
Q

Yale attitude change approach

A

The study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages.

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14
Q

elaboration likelihood model

A

There are two ways in which persuasive communication can cause attitude change.

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15
Q

Central route

A

occurs when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication.

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16
Q

fear arousing communication

A

is a persuasive message that attempts to change people’s attitudes by arousing their fears.

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16
Q

peripheral route

A

occurs when people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by surface characteristics.

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17
Q

– For cognitively based attitudes, using rational arguments and personal relevance is best.
– For affectively based attitudes, using emotion is best.

A
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18
Q

People in Western (individualist) tend to favour advertising that stresses independence.
– People in Eastern (collectivist) cultures are more likely to be persuaded by advertising that stresses interdependence.

A
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19
Q

attitude inoculation

A

The process of making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position.
- Counterarguments

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20
Q

subliminal messages

A

are words or pictures used to persuade that are not consciously perceived.
– There is no evidence to suggest that the type of subliminal messages used in everyday life have any influence on people’s behaviour
- There is evidence that subliminal messages delivered under controlled laboratory conditions may influence people’s behaviour
– What the research does show is that advertisements are more powerful when we can consciously perceive them.

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21
Q

product placement

A

A persuasion method whereby advertisers place their product into the script of a movie or television show.
– Forewarning people that someone is about to try to change their attitude is an effective strategy against attitude change.
– Psychological inoculation

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22
Q

cognitive dissonance

A

A feeling of discomfort caused by the realization that one’s behaviour is inconsistent with one’s attitudes or that one holds two conflicting attitudes.
– Most often occurs whenever we do something that threatens our self-esteem.

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23
Q

The discomfort from cognitive dissonance motivates us to take one of the following three steps to reduce it:

A

– Change the attitude.
– Change the behaviour.
– Change the cognition.

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24
Q

Four reasons we might change our attitude because of dissonance:
▪ Insufficient justification

A

▪ Insufficient justification
▪ Insufficient deterrence
▪ Effort justification
▪ Post decision dissonance

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25
Q

insufficient justification

A

Sometimes we find ourselves stating an opinion that runs counter to our private beliefs or attitudes.
* In trying to understand why we have done so, we look toward external sources to justify our behaviour. *
If none are found, we must then look inward.

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26
Q

external justification

A

a person’s reason or explanation for dissonant behaviour that resides outside the individual

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27
Q

internal justification

A

the reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself

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28
Q

insufficient punishment

A

is the dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in the individuals devaluing the forbidden activity or object.

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29
Q

Festinger and carl smith study

A

– Participants were paid $20 or $1 to lie to a fellow student.
– Those who had insufficient external justification (i.e., paid $1) changed their attitudes to make themselves feel like they were telling the truth.

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30
Q

post-decision dissonance

A

Dissonance that is inevitably aroused after a person makes a decision.
* Typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluating the rejected alternatives.
* The more permanent and less revocable the decision, the greater the need to reduce dissonance.

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31
Q

The Decision to Behave Immorally

A

When presented with a moral dilemma the decision made will evoke dissonance, and result in more extreme attitudes.

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32
Q

Four steps are necessary for people to experience attitude change following dissonance:

A
  1. Negative or aversive consequences
  2. Personal responsibility
  3. Physiological arousal and discomfort
  4. Attribution of that arousal to their own behaviour
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33
Q

conformity

A

The tendency to change your perceptions, opinions, or behaviours in ways that are consistent with perceived group norms.

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34
Q

private acceptance

A

Conforming to other people’s behaviour out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right.

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35
Q

public acceptance

A

Conforming to other people’s behaviour publicly, without necessarily believing in what they are doing, or saying.

36
Q

Two main reasons for conforming are:

A
  • Informational Social Influence
  • Normative Social Influence
37
Q

informational social influence

A

– Conforming because we believe that others’ interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct than our own.
– We conform because we see others as a source of information to guide our behaviour.
– Can bring about private acceptance or public compliance.

38
Q

normative social influence

A

– Conforming to be liked and accepted by others.
– Conforming to avoid being ridiculed, punished or rejected by one’s group.
▪ Results in public compliance but not necessarily private acceptance.

38
Q

Situations which are most likely to produce conformity due to informational social influence include:

A

– Ambiguous or confusing situations.
– Crisis situations.
– When other people are experts.

39
Q

social impact theory

A

– Predicts that the likelihood of conforming to social influence; depends on group strength, immediacy, and number.

40
Q

demographic variable

A

Varying characteristics of a sample, group, or population (age, gender)
– Conformity is highest in adolescence, when there is real pressure to fit in, and less high in children and older adults.

41
Q

gender differences

A

There are small differences; women are slightly more likely to conform than men in terms of public compliance; but no difference in terms of private acceptance.

42
Q

We can resist inappropriate normative social influence by:

A

Becoming aware of what social norms are operating.
– Finding an ally who thinks the way we do.
– Gathering idiosyncrasy credits

43
Q

minority influence

A

occurs when a minority of group members influences the behaviour or beliefs of the majority.
* Minorities influence the majority via informational social influence; leading to private acceptance.

44
Q

minority slowness effect

A

Occurs when people who hold the minority position take longer to express their feelings/emotions?

45
Q

compliance

A

A change in behaviour in response to a direct request.

45
Q

what leads to compliance?

A

*Reciprocity norm
* Consistency and commitment; Self Perception
* Scarcity
* Friendship/liking
* Mindlessness

46
Q

reciprocity norm

A

– When the requester backs down from an extreme request to a smaller one, we feel obliged to return the favour by complying with the request.

47
Q

foot-in-the-door technique

A

– First presenting them with a smaller request, which they are expected to accept. – Then they are presented with the larger request, to which is hoped they will also accept.
* This technique triggers a change in self-perception.
– By agreeing to the small request, it activated people’s self-image of someone who helps others.
– Once this self-image is in place, it makes it difficult not to agree to a second, larger request.

48
Q

lowballing technique

A

Gets people to comply with a request by:
– Inducing a customer to agree to purchase a product at a very low cost, and then raising the price.

49
Q

deadline technique

A

Creating the illusion (often false) of a strict deadline by which you need to act.

50
Q

hard to get technique

A

– Perceived scarcity of an object leads us to act more quickly or to pay more.

51
Q

obedience to authority

A

the tendency people have to try to comply with superiors’ wishes, even when to do so conflicts with their own moral judgment.

52
Q

study Stanley Milgram’s study

A
53
Q

what is a group?

A

A group is a collection of three or more people who interact with each other and are interdependent.
Their needs and goals cause them to rely on one another.
Two people are usually referred to as a dyad.
Intragroup and Intergroup Processes

54
Q

why do people join groups?

A

forming relationships with others fulfills a number of basic human needs - and is likely innate.
Groups help us define who we are as individuals - identity.
Group memberships also motivate people to become involved in social change.

55
Q

group cohesiveness

A

Qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking among them.

56
Q

group diversity

A

Groups then are homogeneous, comprised of members who are alike in age, sex, beliefs, race, and opinions.
Interestingly, it seems that it is more diverse groups that tend to make better decisions.

57
Q

social facilitation

A

Tendency for people to do better on simple tasks but worse on complex tasks, when the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated.
-When the presence of others energizes us.
The presence of others increases physiological arousal (Zajonc, 1965).
When that arousal exists, it is easier to do something simple and more difficult to do something complex or new.

58
Q

collective effort model

A

People are motivated to exert effort in group tasks only when they believe:
- their distinct efforts are identifiable
- these efforts will make a difference in the group’s success
- they’ll experience positive outcomes

58
Q

social loafing

A

When the presence of others relaxes us
When our performance in a group cannot be identified, we become more relaxed.
Being relaxed improves performance on complex tasks and impairs performance on simple tasks.
The tendency for people to do worse on simple tasks, but better on complex tasks, when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated.

59
Q

Three theories explaining the role of arousal:

A

The presence of other people causes us to become alert and vigilant.
- Evaluation apprehension - Others make us apprehensive about being evaluated.
- Distraction hypothesis - Others distract us from the task.

60
Q

Research shows that the tendency to loaf is stronger in:

A

Men than in women (relational interdependence)
Individualist cultures than in collectivist cultures.
(Independent self and interdependent self)

61
Q

deindividuation

A

Getting lost in the crowd
The loosening of normal constraints on behaviour when people are in a group leads to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts.

62
Q

anonymity

A

In groups, we are less distinguishable
- Enhanced if wearing uniforms or face paint
- Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment

63
Q

accountability

A

Because we are less likely to be identified in group settings, we feel less accountable for our actions.

64
Q

groupthink

A
  • A kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than realistically considering the facts.
    - Causes people to reach an inferior decision, sometimes with disastrous consequences.
65
Q

Groups and leaders can take several steps to make groupthink less likely. These include:

A

a. Remain impartial
b. Seek outside opinions
c. Create subgroups
d. Seek anonymous opinions
e. Recruit diverse members
f. Increase awareness about the issue of groupthink

66
Q

group polarization

A

Going to extremes
- Risky decisions - Individual vs. groups
- Risky shift - a process by which groups tend to make riskier decisions than an individual would make alone.
- The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of their members.

67
Q

persuasive arguments

A

people become exposed to even more persuasive arguments than they had at the onset.

68
Q

social comparison

A

people adopting similar behaviour but more extreme views to be liked by the group.

69
Q

great person theory

A
  • The theory that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation the leader faces.
    - Research shows a weak relationship between personality characteristics and leadership.
    - Integrative complexity, the ability to recognize and integrate various perspectives, shows a stronger link with leadership effectiveness.
70
Q

leadership styles

A

Although great leaders may not have specific kinds of personalities, they do appear to adopt specific kinds of leadership styles.

71
Q

transactional leaders

A

set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them.

72
Q

transformational leader

A

inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals.

73
Q

Fielder’s Contingency Theory of Leadership

A
  • The theory that leadership effectiveness depends both on how task-orientated or relationship-oriented the leader is and on the amount of control and influence the leader has over the group.
74
Q

Task-oriented leader

A

concerned more with getting the job done than with the feelings of and relationships between workers.

75
Q

Relationship-oriented leader

A

concerned primarily with the feelings of and relationships between the workers.

75
Q

Agentic traits

A

assertive, controlling, dominant, independent, self-confident
- traditionally associated with men

76
Q

Communal traits

A

Warm, helpful, affectionate
- traditionally associated with women

77
Q

social dilemmas

A
  • A conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, have harmful effects on everyone.
78
Q

prisoners dilemma

A
  • Two people may choose to either cooperate or compete with each other
    - A game in which two players must each choose one of two options, pitting individual gain against group gain.
    - The outcome for each player depends on their combined choices.
79
Q

Common resource dilemma

A
  • When a resource (water, land, oil, etc.) can be reduced or eliminated by overuse.
    Moderate use or the resource will be depleted.
80
Q

Public goods dilemmas

A

When a public good or service needs to be sustained over time
- If enough people contribute to the common pool, others can benefit because the resource will be available to them even if they do not contribute.

81
Q

Tit-for-Tat Strategy

A
  • A means of encouraging cooperation by first acting cooperatively, and then responding the way your opponent did on the previous turn.
82
Q

Prisoner’s Dilemma
- Players will be more cooperative if they are:

A
  • Playing against a friend.
    - Expecting to interact with their partner in the future.
    - Playing in small groups rather than large ones.
83
Q

negotiation

A

Is a form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict in which offers and counter-offers are made.
A solution occurs only when both parties agree.

84
Q

integrative solution

A

A solution to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests.
Each side concedes the most on issues that are unimportant to it but important to the other side.
Mediators can play a key role in helping each side recognize that there are mutually agreeable solutions to a conflict.

Social Psychology (3 decks)

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