Social Psychology

Question 1

• Norman Triplett published what is thought to be the first study on social psychology: He investigated the..
• What did he find?

Answer 1

• effect of competition on performance

- that people perform better on familiar tasks in the presence of others than when alone

Question 2

It was not until 1908 when __ __ and __ __ each independently published the first textbooks on social psychology

Answer 2

William McDougall and E.H Ross

Question 3

Since the __ (year), the field has developed rapidly

Answer 3

1950s

Question 4

• In the 1950’s, Verplank suggested what about social approval?
• In his study, he showed that…
• Verplanl, together with Pavlov, Thorndike, Hull and Skinner helped to establish __ theory as an important perspective in studying social behaviour

Answer 4

• He suggested that social approval influences behaviour.
• the course of a conversation changes dramatically based on the feedback (approval) from others
• reinforcement

Question 5

• Reinforcement theory suggests that…

- The __ __ theorists eventually challenged the early reinforcement theorists

Answer 5

• behaviour is motivated by anticipated rewards

- Social learning

Question 6

• __ __ is the main figure in social learning theory, and he propose that…

Answer 6

• Albert Bandura; behaviour is learned through imitation

Question 7

• Role Theory (Bindle, 1979) suggests that…

Answer 7

• people are aware of the social roles they are expected to fill, and much of their observable behaviour can be attributed to adopting those roles

Question 8

• Cognitive theory has also been extremely influential in social psychological theory and research. Perception, judgement, memories and decision making are all examples of cognitive concepts that have influenced our understanding of __ behaviour

Answer 8

• social

Question 9

• Attitudes consist of…
• Attitudes are typically expressed in __ statements
• Attitudes are likes/dislikes, affinities for and aversions to things, people, ideas, etc

Answer 9

• cognition/beliefs, feelings and behavioural predisposition

- opinion

Question 10

• Social psychologists have devoted much attention to the subject of how attitudes change. Consistency theory proposes that..
• What happens if a person hates smoking, but falls in love with a smoker, according to this theory?
• Inconsistencies are viewed as stimuli or __, and are often resolved by…

Answer 10

• people prefer consistency, and will change or resist changing attitudes based on this preference.
• This would be an inconsistency. If the person is aware of the inconsistency, then, the person will try to resolve it.
• irritants; changing attitudes

Question 11

• One consistency theory is Fritz Heider’s Balance Theory, which is concerned with…
• When does balance exist according to this theory?
• When there isn’t balance, there will be __, and a tendency to..
• PAGE 33 FOR DIAGRAMS
• In general, balance will exist in a triad if there are __ or __ positives
• Imbalance occurs when someone…
• If there are __ or __ positive signs, the triad is unbalanced

Answer 11

• The way 3 elements are related: the person whom we’re talking about (P), some other person (O), and a thing, idea or some other person (X).
• When all 3 fit together harmoniously
• stress; remove this stress by acheiving balance
• one or three
• agrees with someone they dislike, or agrees with someone they dislike
• zero, two

Question 12

• Another consistency theory is Leon Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Theory. Cognitive dissonance is the…
• Engaging in behaviour that conflicts with an attitude man result in…

Answer 12

• conflict that you feel when your attitudes are not in sync with your behaviours
• changing one’s attitude so that it is consistent with the behaviour, which is the most proactive of cognitive dissonance theory predictions

Question 13

• An example of cognitive dissonance 1) Joe believes that cigs cause cancer; 2) Joe smokes cigs. Now, if joe believes that cigs cause cancer, it would be __ for him not to smoke.
• The greater the dissonance, the greater the..
• Dissonance can be reduced by…(2)
• What are the two types of dissonant situations that have been at the forefront of experimentation?

Answer 13

• consistent
• pressure to reduce dissonance
• changing dissonant elements or by adding consonant elements. For example, Joe can stop smoking, smoke low tar cigaratte, avoid reports on the dangers of smoking, criticize reports on dangers of smoking, or convince himself that the enjoyment is worth the risk.
• free choice, forced compliance

Question 14

• Free choice dissonance occurs when..
• What is post-decisional dissonance?
• What are two ways that the guy can reduce his dissonance of choosing the one woman over the other?
• The above two approaches to reducing dissonance are known as the…

Answer 14

• a person makes a choice between several desirable alternatives (e.g., boy choosing between 2 girls - breaks up with one but feels dissonance because he liked both)
• dissonance that occurs after making a choice (like above example)
• 1) Accentuate positive - He can tell himself that betty was more fun, intelligent, successful, etc, than donna, By accentuating the positive, he is reducing the inconsistency that resulted from choosing Donna
  2) Accentuate negative - Can also reduce dissonance by accentuating the negative in Donna
• Spreading of alternatives, meaning the relative worth of the two alternatives is spread apart

Question 15

• Forced compliance dissonance occurs when…

- The force may come from either…

Answer 15

• an individual is forced into behaving in a manner that is inconsistent with their beliefs/attitudes
• anticipated punishment or reward (e.g., being forced into a behaviour (eating spinach) that is at odds with your attitude (you don’t like spinach)

Question 16

• Describe Festinger and Carlsmith’s classic experiment on cognitive dissonance (boring task, 20$ versus 1$ to lie to participants and say the experiment was interesting)

Answer 16

• Basically, as expected, the participants who were paid 20$ could explain away their dissonance because they got a good amount of money to lie. For the participants who only were paid 1$ to lie, they had to reduce their dissonance in some way. They couldn’t change their behaviour, as they had already done the experiment, so they had to change their cognition, perhaps by thinking that the task was a nice break from studying. The dissonance was reduced by believing they actually enjoyed the task, which is why the 1$ participants rated the task as more enjoyable than the 20$ participants.
• When behaviour can be justified by means of external inducements (e.g., 20$), there is no need to change internal cognitions.

Question 17

• What is the minimal justification effect?

Answer 17

• When external justification is minimal, you will reduce your dissonance by changing internal cognitions (e.g., from thinking the task was boring to thinking it was really not that bad) (also sometimes called the insufficient justification effect)

Question 18

• What are the two main principles of cognitive dissonance theory that you should remember?

Answer 18

1) If a person is pressured to say or do something that is contrary to their privately held attitudes, there will be a tendency for them to change those attitudes
2) The greater the pressure to comply, the less the person’s attitude will change. Ultimately, attitude change generally occurs when the behaviour is induced with minimum pressure

Question 19

• Daryl Bem’s Self-Perception Theory has also been used to explain forced-cognitive dissonance - define
• How can Festinger and Carlsmith’s results be explained using Bem’s self-perception theory?

Answer 19

• Basic idea is that when your attitudes about something are weak or ambiguous, you observe your own behaviour and attribute an attitude toward yourself (e.g., if someone asks if I like brown bread and I say, “i guess i do because i’m always eating it” - essentially, people infer what their attitudes are based on their observation of their own behaviour
• The people who got paid 1$ would think to themselves, “1$ is not enough to get me to lie about the experiment so I must have had some fun in it”

Question 20

• What is they key difference between Bem’s self-perception theory and Festinger and Carlsmith’s theory?

Answer 20

• Bem doesn’t hypothesize a state of discomfort or dissonance, therefore, in self-perception theory, a person’s attitude is irrelevant and there is no discomfort produced by behaviour

Question 21

• What is the overjustification effect?

Answer 21

• States that if you reward people for something they already enjoy doing, they may stop liking it. So, if your child likes doing the dishes and you begin to give them weekly allowance for it, they may start to associate doing the dishes with being paid, rather than to the fact that they enjoy doing the dishes. Hence, the child will start to attribute doing the dishes to external causes, rather than to dispositional causes

Question 22

• Carl Hovland’s Model deals with attitude change as a process of…
• He broke down the communication process into 3 components:

Answer 22

• communicating a message with the intent to persuade someone.
• 1) the communicator - someone who has taken a position on an issue and is trying to convince someone to adopt this position. The communicator produces a 2) communication (presentation of an argument) that is designed with the intent to persuade. 3) the situation = the surroundings in which the communication takes place

Question 23

• In Hovland’s model, in terms of the communicator, it has been found that the more credible the source is perceived to be…
• Credibility, the degree to which a person can be believed, depends on..

Answer 23

• the greater the persuasive impact

- how expert and trustworthy a source appears to be

Question 24

• Carl Hovland and Walter Weiss (1952) conducted a classic study on source credibility. What was it?\
• What happened over time?

Answer 24

• Presented information from sources with varying levels of credibility (e.g., one was written by a physicist). Not surprisingly, the conclusions were that the communications from highly credible sources were more effective in changing attitudes than those from low credibility sources.
• The persuasive impact of the high credibility source decreased, while the persuasive impact of the low cred source increased, known as the SLEEPER EFFECT

Question 25

• What is the sleeper effect?

Answer 25

• Phenomenon that occurs when a low credibilty source appears to increase in credibility over time, while the opposite happens to a high cred source

Question 26

• Another important finding related to sources is that they can increase their credibility by arguing against..

Answer 26

• their own self-interest

Question 27

• What are two-sided messages and what are they used for?

Answer 27

• They contain arguments for both sides of a position (for, against), and they are often used for persuasion messages, since such messages seem to be “balanced” communication. News reporting does this often

Question 28

• Petty and Cacioppo’s Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion suggests that..
• When do we choose the central route?
• ^ peripheral route?

Answer 28

• there are 2 routes to persuasion - central, peripheral
• If the issue is important to us (strong arguments will change our minds more often than weak ones)
• If the issue it not very important to us or if we cannot clearly hear the message

Question 29

• On the other side of the coin is research on how people can resist persuasion. William McGuire uses the analogy of…
• He argued that the body can be inoculated from __ __
• He tested this theory using what he called __ __ - beliefs that are seldom questioned.
• The cultural truism is vulnerable because…

Answer 29

• inoculation against diseases
• persuasive communications
• cultural truisms; For example, “It’s a good idea to brush your teeth after every meal if you can”. Since these beliefs are seldom attacked, they are vulnerable to attack. This is analogous to the vulnerability of ppl to smallpox if they have never been vaccinated.
• the individual has never had any practice defending it

Question 30

= According to McGuire, how can people be inoculated against an attack?

• How did he inoculate people against attacks on cultural truisms?
• Presenting refuted counterarguments motivates people to…
• McGuire found that cultural truisms that were not inoculated were..

Answer 30

• By first exposing them to a weaker attack.
• By first presenting arguments against the truisms and then refuting the arguments, which are known as REFUTED COUNTERARGUMENTS (e.g., you can argue that brushing teeth destroys tooth enamel but then state that the amount destroyed is insignificant).
• practise defending their beliefs
• quite vulnerable to attack

Question 31

• Social psychologists have even found that, under certain conditions, people will hold beliefs even after they have proven to be false. This is called…
• If you are induced to believe a statement and then provide your own explanation for it, you will tend to…

Answer 31

• belief perseverance
• continue to believe the statement, even when the statement is shown to be false (e.g., if you were forced to explain why chocolate causes acne via clogging pores, you will tend to still believe it even after finding out the information if false)

Question 32

• When social pressure to behave in a certain way becomes so blatant that the person’s sense of freedom is threatened, the person will tend to…, which is called __
• If you try too hard to persuade someone of something…

Answer 32

• act in a way to reassert a sense of freedom; reactance

- the person will choose to believe the opposite of your position

Question 33

• What are the 3 principles of Festinger’s social comparison theory?

Answer 33

• 1) People prefer to evaluate themselves by objective, nonsocial means. However, when this is not possible, people evaluate their opinions and abilities by comparing them to those of others
  2) The less the similarity of options and abilities between two people, the less the tendency to make comparisons.
  3) When a discrepancy exists with respect to opinions and abilities, there is a tendency to change one’s position so as to move in line with the group. Notice how the need for self-evaluation becomes linked to the need to affiliate.

Question 34

• If affiliation provides a way of comparing one’s opinions and abilities, you might expect that the greater the need to compare one’s opinions and abilities, the greater the desire to affiliate. Stanley Schacter’s research found that greater __ does lead to a greater desire to affiliate.
• What did Schacter find about affiliation?
• Thus, according to Schacter, both __ and a need to …., may play roles in determining what?

Answer 34

• anxiety
• That little anxiety typically does not provoke the desire to affiliate. However, anxious ppl appear to prefer the company of other anxious ppl. Therefore, the perceived similarity of other anxious people is a factor in the affiliation.
• anxiety; compare oneself with other people; determining both when and with whom we affiliate

Question 35

• Other theorists have concerned themselves with the reasons we affiliate with or are attracted to some people but not others. According to the reciprocity hypothesis..
• Research suggests that our attractions are a two-way street. We don’t merely evaluate a person’s qualities and arrive at a like or dislike, we also take into account…

Answer 35

• we tend to like people who indicate they like us and dislike people who indicate they dislike us.
• the other person’’s evaluation of us

Question 36

• Aronson and Linder hypothesized a twist to the reciprocity hypothesis, known as the gain-loss principle, which states that..

Answer 36

• an evaluation that changes will have more of an impact than an evaluation that remains constant. Therefore, we will like someone more if their like for us has increased than someone who has consistently liked us. Same for dislike.

Question 37

• Social exchange theory assumes that…

- Stated simply, this theory means that people will attempt to..

Answer 37

• a person weighs the rewards and costs of interacting with another. The more the rewards outweigh the costs, the greater the attraction to the other person.
• maximize rewards and minimize costs

Question 38

• Equity theory states that..
• What does this theory state in terms of ratios?
• What could cause an instablity?

Answer 38

• we consider not only our own costs and rewards, but the costs and rewards of the other person.
• We prefer that our ratio of costs to rewards be equal to the other person’s ratio.
• If one person feels that they are getting less or more out of the relationship than the other

Question 39

• Researchers have found that certain individual characteristics tend to play a role in affiliation and attraction. Correlations have been found between affiliation and similarity of…
• What is need compimentarity?
• Even successful complimentary relationships have fundamental…

Answer 39

• intelligence, attitudes, education, height, age, religion, socioeconomic status, drinking habits and mental health
• term used to explain that people choose relationships to mutually satisfy each other’s needs (e.g., a person who likes to talk is complimented by a person who likes to listen)
• similarities in some attitudes that favour the dissimilarity

Question 40

• The attractiveness stereotype is the…

Answer 40

• tendency to attribute positive qualities and desirable characteristics to attractive people - which is one ay ti explain the potency of physical attractiveness as a determinant of attraction

Question 41

• Another factor in attraction is spatial __
• proximity may also increase the __ of initial interactions
• Another possibility is the mere exposure hypothesis, which states that…
• __ __ is a key figure in mere exposure research

Answer 41

• proximity - the closer people are to one another, the more accessible they are to each other = relationships
• intensity
• mere repated exposure to a stimulus leads to an enhanced liking for it - the more you see something , the more you like it.
• Robert Zajonic

Question 42

• Helping behaviour include altruism, but also includes behaviours that may be motivated by __ or __

Answer 42

• egotism, selfishness

Question 43

• The most celebrated line of research in the area of helping behaviour is the work of __ __ and __ __ on __ __
• What was Darley and Latane’s interpretation of the bystander situation (Kitty)?
• What were the two factors that were interpreted as influencing whether or not someone helps?

Answer 43

• John Darley; Bibb Latane; Bysander Intervention
• That people were not apathetic, but were engaged in a normal problem solving process - trying to figure out what was going on and what to do about it. Unfotunately, their problem solving process, which included an evaluation of deterrents, led to not helping.
• 1) Social influence 2) diffusion of responsibility

Question 44

• How did Lante and Darley test for the social influence process?
• In post experimental interviews, those who did not respond said they did not think there was a fire, as the other person in the lab wasn’t reacting. This is known as …

Answer 44

• By staging emergencies in lab settings (smoke does not necessarily mean fire) - page 41
• pluralistic ignorance

Question 45

• The second process Latane and Darley tested was the diffusion of responsibility. Once an individual interprets that a situation is an emergency, they have to decide whether or not to help. If there is only one bystander at an emergency, the person knows they have 100% of the responsibility. If others are present, this responsibility (or guilt for not helping) will be shared. As the person weighs the costs and rewards of helping and attempts to resolve the conflict between helping and not helping, the fact that others are in a position to help may sway the person towards…
• In their experiment where they were made to believe a person was having a seizure, what did they find?

Answer 45

• not heping
• They found that, when subjects thought that they were the only ones listening, they reported the seizure 100% of the time. When subjects thought 2 other people were listening, they reported it 85%; 4 others listening = 62%. The results supported the diffusion of responsibility hypothesis - the more people present, the less likelihood that anyone would offer help.

Question 46

• Empathy is the ability to..
• Batson’s Empathy-Altruism model is one explanation for the relationship between empathy and helping behaviour. According to this model…

Answer 46

• vicariously experience the emotions of another, and
  it is thought by some social psychs to have a strong influence on helping behaviour
• when faced with situations in which others may need help, people might feel distress (mental pain or anguish), and/or they might feel empathy. Both of these states are important, since either can determine helping behaviour (some psychs disgaree and believe helping behaviour only occurs when there is some benefit to the person offering help)

Question 47

• What happened in Batson’s shock-helping experiment?

Answer 47

• page 41 - Basically, subjects in the easy-escape condition who reported more distress than empathy tended to leave rather than help. Subjects who reported more empathy than distress were more likely to help regardless of whether they were in the easy or difficult escape conditions

Question 48

• Frustration-aggression hypothesis suggests that…

- Researchers have found that the strength of the frustration experienced is correlated with the..

Answer 48

• when people are frustrated, they act aggressively.

- level of aggression observed

Question 49

• Bandura’s social learning theory suggests that aggression is learned through…
• What did his bobo doll experiment show?
• Bandura also believed that aggressive behaviour is __ __, that is people act aggressively because…

Answer 49

• modelling (direct observation) or reinforcement
• That the children who observed the aggressive behaviour were more likly to behave aggressively toward the doll. In some cases, children copied the agression on the rubber doll blow for blow.
• selectively reinforced; because they expect some sort of reward (material benefit, social approval, attention) for doing so

Question 50

• Muzafer Sherif’s Conformity Study - describe

Answer 50

• He evaluated the concept of norm formation: He had subjects, when alone, estimate the amount of movement of a point of light in an otherwise completely dark room (autokinetic effect). Remember, any movement reported is an illusion. He then brought a group of subjects together and had them, as a group, estimate they amount of movement. He found that the subject’s solitary estimates changed so that the group agreed on the amount of movement. BAsically, individuals conformed to the group; their judgements converged on some group norm.

Question 51

• What were the findings of Solomon Asch’s Conformity study?

Answer 51

-Researchers found a strong tendency for subjects to conform to the incorrect responses of the confederates. In fact. subjects gave the wrong answer around 37% of the time. Furthermore, more than 75% of the subjects gave the wrong answer at least once. In the control conditions, with no confederates present to mislead participants, the subjects chose the wrong line less than 1% of the time.

Question 52

• What was the question asked in Stanley Migram’s Obedience experiment?
• What were the main findings in Stanley Migram’s Obedience experiment?

Answer 52

• How far would ppl proceed if they were asked to give increasingly powerful shocks to another person? Obedience was measured by the maximum shock a person would administer.
• Each of the subjects administered at least 300 volts. After the 300 volts, at the point at which the learner pounded on the wall, 5 subjects refused to continue. However, 26/40 subjects (65%) continued beyond “Danger: Severe Shock” to the last switch on the board marked “XXX”. Every subject was willing to hurt someone at the experimenter’s command. And almost 2/3 of the subjects were completely obedient to the experimenter. Keep in mind that the experimenter had no special authority to enforce his commands

Question 53

• What happened to the subjects that Migram did not expect?
• What did Milgram attribute this ^to?
• The results indicated that the drive to…

Answer 53

• They showed signs of stress and tension (sweating, trembling, stutter, groan, dig nails into their own flesh). Additionally, 14/40 subjects showed nervous laughter and smiling; 3/40 subjects had uncontrollable seizures.
• He attributed the tension to a conflict between deeply ingrained tenets not to hurt others, and the equally compelling tendency to obey those who are in authority
• obey was stronger than the drive not to hurt someone against their will.

Question 54

• Milgram conducted a second study at a run down building, and found roughly the same results. Why did he do this?
• In a third study, Milgram asked two confederates (teachers) to defy the experimenter in the middle of the experiment. What happened?
• In a fourth variation, the subjects did not directly shock the learner. They would pull a switch and then a confederate would deliver the shock. In this situation how many participated until the end?

Answer 54

• Because he thought that the fact his original study took place at an esteemed university might have played a role in people’s obedience.
• 90% of participants followed their lead, which is not surprising in light of Asch’s conformity studies.
• 37/40

Question 55

• Milgram related obedience in his experiments to…

Answer 55

• obedience in Nazi Germany. He basically said that human nature can’t be counted on to protect its citizens from the direction of a greater authority with bad intentions

Question 56

• Compliance is a…

- How does the foot in the door demonstrate compliance?

Answer 56

• change in behaviour that results from situational or interpersonal pressure
• By demonstrating that compliance to a small request increases the likelihood of compliance to a larger request. (e.g., people who agreed to first sign a petition on safe driving were more likely to agree to put a large sign on their lawn, whereas people who didn’t agree to sign the petition were less likely)

Question 57

• Door in the face effect suggests that…

Answer 57

• People who refuse an initial large request are more likely to agree to a later smaller request. (e.g., College students asked to volunteer at a detention centre for two years, which everyone refused. When a second request was made to chaperone juveniles from the detention centre to the zoo, significantly more subjects agreed to this request than subjects in the control group, who were approached with the small request only.)

Question 58

• Clark and Clark Doll Preference Study (1947) - These researchers studied…
• Explain the study -
• What has subsequent research found regarding these findings?

Answer 58

• ethnic self-concept among white and black children using the famous doll preference task.
• The experimenter showed each child a black and a white doll, and asked the child a series of Qs about how they felt about the dolls. The majority of white and black children preferred the white doll.
• Using improved methodologies (e.g., balancing the ethnicity of the experimenter), and perhaps partially due to changes in society, research shows that black children in fact hold positive views of their own ethnicity.

Question 59

• In terms of personal identity, it is believed that our identities are organized according to..
• Researchers have found that, the more salient the identity, the more…

Answer 59

• a hierarchy of salience, or that which holds the most importance for us in each particular situation. For example, male and female college students in same sex groups were less likely to list gender in their self-descriptions than students in mixed gender groups
• we conform to the role expectations of identities

Question 60

• __ __ is an important concept in Albert Bandura’s larger theoretical framework, __ __ __
• Bandura describes self-efficacy as an..
• Research suggests that those with strong self-efficacy exert…
• Self-efficacy judgements are based on what 4 things?

Answer 60

• self-efficacy, social cognitive theory
• individual’s belief in their ability to organize and execute a particular pattern of behaviour.
• more effort in difficult tasks than those with low self-efficacy
• 1) performance accomplishments (history of success with the task of interest), 2) vicarious experiences (observed successful performances on the task), 3) social persuasion (task success is suggested by others) and 4) physiological and emotional states

Question 61

• Social perceptions is the name that social psychologists give to the ways in which we form impressions about the characteristics of individuals and of groups of people. The primacy effect refers to…
• The recency effect - states that..

Answer 61

• those occasions when first impressions are more important that subsequent impressions.
• sometimes the most recent information we have about an individual is the most important thing in forming our impressions

Question 62

• According to Fritz Heider, we are all…

- Heider divided these causes ^ into two main categories:

Answer 62

• naive amateur psychologists who attempt to discover causes and effects of events
• 1) dispositional - dispositional causes are those that relate to the features of the person whose behaviour is being considered and 2) situational - causes that are external and that relate to features of the surroundings (e.g., threats, money, social norms, peer pressure)

Question 63

• If you say that the subject’s in milgram’s experiments administered the shocks due to the power of authority, what type of attribution are you making?

Answer 63

• situational - it is the characteristics of the situation that are the primary cause of behaviour

Question 64

• Researchers have identified several kinds of biases that occur in the attribution process. One is the fundamental attribution error, which is…
• The halo effect is another example of the tendency for bias in evaluations of other people. This is the tendency to..
• The halo effect explains why people are often..

Answer 64

• the tendency to make dispositional attributions rather than situation when inferring the causes of others’ behaviour - this is a general bias that people have
• allow a general impression about a person (“I like Jill in general”) to influence other, more specific evaluations about a person (“Jill is a good writer, she is trustworthy, can do no wrong”).
• inaccurate in evaluations of people that they either believe to be generally good, or generally bad.

Question 65

• M.L Lerner studied the tendency of individuals to…

- A strong belief in a just world indicates a likelihood of…

Answer 65

• believe in a just world. In a just world, good things would happen to good ppl and bad things to bad ppl
• blaming the victim, since such a world denies the possibility of innocent victims

Question 66

• Theodore Newcomb’s Study on the influence of groups norms found what?
• What did he find in his follow up study 20 years later?

Answer 66

• Each year of a student’s college career was marked by an increase in her liberalism (school was liberal, but most had republican views when entering). Put another way, over time, students increasingly accepted the norms of their community.
• That most of the students who left the school as liberals remained liberals, and those who left as conservatives remained so. Women who had left as liberals generally married men of the same political beliefs. However, those liberals who ultimately married conservative men frequently returned to their old conservatism.

Question 67

• Edward Hall and proxemics. He suggested that…

- In the U.S, he found that…

Answer 67

• there are cultural norms that govern how far we stand from people we are speaking to.
• the proper distance to stand when you are talking to someone with whom you are intimate is around 1ft, give or take a few inches. In terms of interactions with strangers, he found that they take place several feet apart.

Question 68

• The study of how individuals space themselves in relation to others is called __

Answer 68

• proxemics

Question 69

Zajonic argues that the precense of others…

Answer 69

• increases arousal and consequently enhances the emission of dominant responses. For example, if a person is learning a new dance step, they are bound to make mistakes. In the precense of others, these mistakes (dominant responses) are likely to be enhanced. The same goes for a professional dancer - the correct moves (dominant moves) are enhanced

Question 70

• Philip Zimbardo found that people are more likely to commit antisocial acts when…
• When a person is anonymous, there is a diminished restraint of…
• In his prision experiment, Zimbardo said that one of the major processes operating within the prison was __, which is a loss of..

Answer 70

• they feel anonymous in a social environment.
• unacceptable behaviour
• deindividuation; a loss of self-awareness and personal identity (their sense of self was overwhelmed by the roles they were playing and they began acting out these roles, forgetting that they were actually students in an experiment)

Question 71

• Irving Janis has studied the ways group decisions often go awry. How did she do this?
• According to Janis, judgement failed in these situations because…

Answer 71

• By examining thousands of historical documents about situations in which government officials had made serious mistakes (e.g., not being ready for attack on pearl harbour)
• the decision makers were engaged in GROUP-THINK, which refers to the tendency of decision-making groups to strive for consensus by not considering discordant information (e.g., in the Bay of pigs situation involving an invasion, no one looked at a map, which showed that the plan they agreed on would not work due to how far the retreat was)

Question 72

• Risky shift is another factors in decision making. This refers to…
• One explanation for the risky shift is the __ hypothesis, which states..

Answer 72

• the finding that group decisions are riskier than the average of the individual choices (and this average riskiness of individual choices can be considered to be an estimate of the group’s original riskiness).
• Value; the risky shift occur in situations in which riskiness is culturally valued (e.g., riskiness in business ventures - the less risky members will compare self to more risky members and increase their riskiness)

Question 73

• It turns out that risky shift may just be one specific example of a general phenomenon. In a 1968 experiment by James Stoner dilemmas were presented to couples to examine…
• Stoner found a shift with group decisions toward…, which suggests that..

Answer 73

• the risky shift in controversial situations (e.g., pregnancy risking the mother’s life or termination of preg)
• caution instead of risk; the nature of the dilemma may determine the direction of the shift

Question 74

• The contradictory findings regarding risk have led researchers to speak about extremity shifts, noting that…
• The leading current explanation for the extremity shift is __ _, which refers to a…

Answer 74

• group decisions tend to be more extreme, but not necessarily more risky than the decisions of individuals
• group polarization; a tendency for group discussions to enhance the group’s initial tendencies towards riskiness or caution. So, if a group originally had a tendency to be risky, further discussion with tend to make the group more risky - same goes for cautious, which leads to greater caution.

Question 75

• Researchers have found that leaders of groups engage in more __ than nonleaders
• Considering this information ^, researchers found that they could increase a persons perceived leadership by..

Answer 75

• communication

- increasing the amount a person speaks

Question 76

• Kurt Lewin conducted research to determine the effects of different __ __
• Describe his experiment

Answer 76

• leadership styles
• He manipulated the leadership styles used to supervise boys in an after school program. Each of the boys experienced 3 different leadership styles: autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire. Laissez-faire groups were less efficient, less organized and less satisfying for the boys than the democratic groups. The autocratic groups =more hostile, agressive and dependent on their leader. Democratic groups = more satisfying, cohesive than autocratic. The quantity of work in the autocratic groups was greater than in other groups, but work motivation and interest were stronger in the democratic groups.

Question 77

• In cooperation, perons act together for their…

- in competition, a person acts for…

Answer 77

• mutual benefit so that all of them can obtain a goal

- their own beliefs so that they can attain a goal that has limited availability

Question 78

• The prisoner’s dilemma is a classic method of investigating…
• Why would one of the prisoners choose to compete rather than cooperate?

Answer 78

• people’s choices to cooperate or compete. (page 53)
• 1) they want the best outcome for themself or 2) the prisoner doesn’t trust the other prisoner and doesn’t want to be left holding the bag (a felony charge)

Question 79

• Another study on cooperation and competition was conducted by Sherif. Sherif and his colleagues created __ through competition and then..
• Describe the experiment
• What are superordinate goals?

Answer 79

• hostilities, reduced these hostilities through cooperation.
• 12 year old boys at two camps; didn’t know about each other; bonded and named their groups; then becmae aware of each other and forced into competition; after one team one, 7 attempts (e.g., going to a movie) to try and reduce hostility between groups failed; what succeeded in resucing the hostility was problem solving (e.g., finding enough money to go see a movie).
• Goals that are best obtained through intergroup cooperation -Sherif found that a joint effort on these superordinate goals dramatically improved intergroup relations. At the end of camp, both groups agreed to go home together on the same bus