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Developmental Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q
  • Who formed the British empiricist school of thought?
A
  • John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, George Berkely, David Hume, James Mill, John Stuart Mill
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2
Q
  • What did the researchers of the british empiricist school of thought believe about knowledge?
A
  • That it was gained through experience
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3
Q
  • What did John Locke’s blank slate/tabula rasa suggest about children?
  • According to Locke, who is responsible for the child fitting into society?
A
  • That they are born without predetermined tendencies, and that child development is completely reliant on experiences with the environment.
  • The parents’ and society’s responsibility to mold the child to fit
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4
Q
  • Nearly a century after Locke, Jean-Jaques Rousseau proposed…
  • He conveyed his thoughts on child raising how?
A
  • that society was not only unneccessary, but a detriment to optimal development.
  • in a book called “Emile: Concerning Education”. The book is a comprehensive guide to pedagogy (the method and practice of teaching). The book was so controversial that he had to flee France to avoid arrest
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5
Q

Beginning in the late 18th century, it became popular for physicians, loving relatives and others to keep __ __, which are…

A
  • baby biographies; diaries that, though often full of anecdote and casual observations, contained detailed info concerning the sequence of physical and psychological development.
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6
Q
  • One of the most influential baby biographies was kept by __ __, who is often linked to the concept of __
  • Evolutionary theory stressed the importance of studying the…
  • Darwin’s theory of natural selection also caused researchers to become interested in the study of…
A
  • charles darwin; evolution
  • mind as it functioned to help the individual adapt to the environment, a central characteristic of the functionalist system of thought
  • individual diffs in abilities such as hearing, seeing, prob solving
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7
Q
  • It was the influence of Darwin’s evolutionary thought that guided G. Stanley Hall in the work that earned him the title…
  • Hall (1846-1942) was one of the first psychologists to do empirical work on __
  • How did he do this?^
  • What things did he was he a founder of?
A
  • ” the father of developmental psychology”
  • children
  • By compiling hundreds of questionnaires on the viewes and opinions of children, and compared them by age.
  • One of the first founders of the APA and the founder of child and adolescent psychology
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8
Q
  • John Watson was an important early psychologists whose theories were influential in the field of __ __
  • What was a popular article he published?
  • What were his views in comparison to Locke’s?
  • Watson once wrote what about raising children?
A
  • developmental psychology
  • He published “Psychology as the Behaviourist Views it” in the journal called “Psychological Review”, which criticized the field of psych as being too focused on mentalistic concepts.
  • He accepted Locke’s view of the tabula rasa and believed in the environmental influences on child development
  • “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own special world to bring them up in and I’ll garuntee i’ll take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist i might select - doctor, lawyer..-regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities and vocation and race of his ancestors”
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9
Q
  • John Watson’s theory placed a great deal of responsibility on who for raising competent children? And how did he suggest this?
  • Watson also believed that __ and __ were acquired through learning.
A
  • parents; by providing the right learning experiences, and doing so while avoiding overt “sentimental” affection
  • emotion and thought
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10
Q
  • Watson believed which methods were useful in the study of psychology/
  • He believed psychology should never discuss…
  • As an early behaviourist, Watson believed that the goal of psychology should be…
A
  • objective measures in the study of behaviour only
  • concepts such as consciousness, mental states, imagery, etc.
  • to predict behavioural responses to certain stimuli, and vice versa
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11
Q
  • Arnold Gesell believed that development occurred as a…

- Gesell was a “natavist”, in that he believed that..

A
  • maturation (or biological) process, regardless of practice or training.
  • much of development was biologically based and that the development blueprint existed from birth
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12
Q
  • Psychodynamic theories stress the role of __ __ in the development of functioning and personality
  • In contrast to the beliefs of psychoanalytic and psychosocial theories, cognitive theories of development emphasize the…
  • In opposition to the behaviourists were __ structuralists, whose orientation was strongly influenced by the work of __ __
A
  • subconscious conflicts in the development of functioning and personality.
  • thinking ability of people
  • cognitive; Jean Piaget
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13
Q
  • Jean Piaget believed that children were…
A
  • actively involved in their own development - constructing knowledge of the world through their experiences with the environment
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14
Q
  • What are the 3 research methods typically used in developmental psychology?
  • What is one possible additional method?
A
  • Cross-sectional, longitudinal, sequential cohort studies (combo of cross sectional and longitudinal where several group of different ages are studied over several years)
  • Case study/clinical method where they attempt to collate facts about a particular child
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15
Q
  • The study of genetics was initiated by __ __
  • What is the huge thing he is known for and how did he figure it out?
  • He suggested that each specific trait was controlled by an…, and that each variation was represented by…
A
  • Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk who lived in the 19th century
  • By carefully observing the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants, he hypothesized the existence of the basic unit of heredity, the GENE
  • an alternative form of a gene called an ALLELE; an allele that was either DOMINANT or RECESSIVE
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16
Q
  • For any given gene, there are 2 __
A

alleles

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17
Q
  • In humans, both parents contribute a __ for each __
  • The dominant allele will be expressed in which situation(s)?
  • The recessive allele will be expressed in which situation(s)?
A
  • gene; trait
  • 1) both parents contribute dominant allele, 2) one contributes dom and the other recessive
  • 1) both parents contribute a recessive allele
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18
Q
  • Genotype =
A
  • the total genetic makeup of an individual
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19
Q

Phenotype =

A

The collection of expressed traits that constitute the individual’s observable characteristics

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20
Q

People with identical __ can have different __

A
  • phenotypes; genotypes
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21
Q

What a chromosomes made of?

A
  • DNA strands and proteins
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22
Q

Humans have _ chromosomes, organized into _ homologous pairs, of which _ are autosomes

A

-46, 23, 22

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23
Q

What determines the sex of the child?

A

The 23rd pair of chromosomes

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24
Q

The human body, except for sperm cells and egg cells, holds..

A
  • all 23 pairs of chromosomes
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25
Q
  • What is diploid?

- Which cells in the human body are diploid?

A
  • Somatic cells in the human body are diploid

- It means that the chromosomes they contain exist in pairs

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26
Q
  • What is haploid?

- Which cells in the human body are halpoid?

A
  • It means they contain 23 single chromosomes

- The gamates (sperm and egg cells) are haploid

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27
Q
  • Why is the arrangement of haploid and diploid cells necessary?
A
  • Because when the sperm and egg cells join together for conception, the two hapoid cells come together to make a full complement diploid of 23 chromosome pairs. In this way, each parents contributes one gene for each trait.
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28
Q
  • Why is normal human genetic variability greater than in asexual reproduction?
A
  • Because the offspring of sexual reproduction receives genes from both parents
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29
Q
  • Children can be said to have an average of _% of their genes in common with each parent.
  • Siblings share what percent?
  • fraternal twins?
  • Identical twins?
A
  • 50%
  • 50%
    -50%
    100%
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30
Q
  • In addition to characteristics such as sex and eye colour, genes are also thought to effect behaviour. R.C Tyron’s studies on the…. are one of the clearest examples.
  • Describe his study
  • What did further studies reveal about specific maze types?
A
  • inheritance of maze-running abilities
  • Page 72- selectively bred “maze bright” and “maze dull” rats and found that, after generations of breeding, the difference between the two rats intensified, providing evidence that learning ability had a genetic component.
  • That performance between the two groups on maze types that were different from what the “maze bright” rats were trained on was no different between groups
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31
Q
  • Research that determines the degree of genetic influence on individual differences between people uses one of 3 methods:
A
  • family studies, twin studies, adoption studies
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32
Q
  • Family studies have determined that the risk of developing schizophrenia for children of schizophrenics is __ times higher than normal pop.
  • For siblings, this risk is __ times higher
  • Important to note that genetics and environment play a role
A
  • 13

- 9 times

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33
Q
  • MZ twins tend to be more similar in regards to their __, __, and __ characteristics than DZ twins, suggesting some genetic influence on these characteristics
A
  • cognitive, social, emotional
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34
Q
  • Researchers have found that MZ twins are treated more…
  • MZ twins also tend to __ __ more then DZ
  • To better measure genetic effects relative to environmental effects, researchers compared personality characteristics in twins who were raised together (same family) to twins raised apart (different families). On personality measures, MZ twins raised in same fam are more similar. MZ twins raised in the same fam are __ similar in personality characteristics than DZ twins raised apart.
  • DZ twins raised apart are the __ similar.
  • What does the research in this slide suggest about personality traits?
A
  • similarly than DZ twins
  • imitate each other
  • more
  • least
  • that they are at least somewhat heritable
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35
Q
  • What has research found about IQ between adoptive and bio parents?
A
  • IQ is more similar to bio parents, suggesting that IQ is heritable. Criminal behaviour among boys shows a similar pattern of heritability
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36
Q
  • Lewis Terman’s study compared….

- This study was important because..

A
  • a group of children with high IQs (135 and above) with groups of children typical of the general population to discover similarities and differences.
  • it was the first to focus on “gifted children”, and because it was a large-scale longitudinal study that followed the development of the group over time, observing them every 5 years
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37
Q

Down’s Syndrome is a genetic anomaly in which…

- One factor affecting the possibility of this genetic mutation is the…

A

= the individual has an extra 21st chromosome. Individuals with down’s syndrome often have varying levels of intellectual disability
- age of the biological parents (older = increased risk)

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38
Q
  • Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a…
  • How is this tested for?
  • PKU was the first…
A
  • genetic disorder, a degenerative disease of the nervous system that results when the enzyme needed to digest phenylaline, an amino acid found in milk and other foods, is lacking.
  • Infants can be given tests for PKU and can avoid the severe effects of the disease with a strict diet
  • genetic disease that could be tested in large populations
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39
Q
  • Klinefelter’s syndrome is…

- What are the symptoms?

A
  • Only diagnosed in males, it is the possession of an extra X chromosome (XXY).
  • Often sterile with an intellectual disability
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40
Q
  • Turner’s syndrome is..

- Turner’s syndrome results in..

A
  • only diagnosed in females, and it is only having one X chromosome.
  • a failure to develop secondary sex characteristics, physical abnormalities such as short fingers and unusually shaped mouths
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41
Q
  • Conception takes place in the…
A
  • fallopian tubes
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42
Q
  • Describe the stages of prenatal development:
A

1) Zygote: The sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell and forms a single cell (zygote)
2) Germinal period: Fertilized egg travels down the fallopian tube and is implanted into uterine wall
3) Embryonic Period: The 8 weeks following the germinal period; embryo increases in size by 2 million percent ( or 20,000 times)
4) Fetal period: Begins in the 3rd month with measurable electrical activity in the fetus’ brain

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43
Q
  • During the embryonic period, the embryo grows to about __ __ long and begins to develop a __ __
  • The __ appear and the __ begins to recede
  • __, __ and __ __ appear
  • The male embryo does what?
  • __ cells in the __ develop and…
A
  • an inch; human appearance
  • limbs; tail
  • fingers, toes, external genitals
  • begins to produce androgen in the testes
  • nerve cells in the spine develop and the first behaviours (motion of the limbs) occur
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44
Q
  • The onset of the fetal period, which takes place in the __ __, is marked by…
A
  • third month; measurable electrical brain activity
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45
Q
  • The placenta transmits…while also…

- Maternal blood supplies much of the __ and __ __ needed for growth, although the embryo begins to produce them as well

A
  • nutrients to the fetus while also returning waste laden blood to the mother
    _ proteins, amino acids
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46
Q
  • A variety of external influences can have deleterious effects on the development of the fetus. Infants whose mothers contract __ or __ __ before the end of the _ __ run a high risk of…
  • What happened with thalidomide?
A
  • rubella, german measles; cataracts, deafness, heart defects and intellectual disability. Other viral infections (measles, mumps, hep, flu, chicken pox, herpes, etc, also linked to various birth defects)
  • this is a tranquilizer that was prescribed to women in the 1950s. Mother who took this drug while pregnant often gave birth to babies with missing and malformed limbs and defects of the heart, eyes, digestive tract, ears and kidneys.
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47
Q
  • __ __ is considered to be the leading cause of abnormal development
  • page 76 for several things that effect fetus
A
  • maternal malnutrition
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48
Q
  • Name and describe the 4 neonatal reflexes
A

1) Rooting - infants automatically turn their heads in the direction of stimuli applied to the cheek (e.g., nipple during feeding)
* *Sucking and swallowing when an object is placed i the mouth are also examples of reflexes related to the feeding situation.

2) Moro - infants reactions to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, extending their fingers, bringing their arms back to their body essentially hugging themselves

3) Babinski - infant’s toes automatically spread apart when the soles for feet stimulated
4) Grasping - infants automatically close their fingers around objects placed in their hands

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49
Q
  • When did the moro reflex develop?

- When does this reflex disappear?

A
  • it has been speculated that this reflex may have developed during a time when our pre-human ancestors lived in trees and falling could be prevented by instinctive clutching
  • Around 4-5 months. If still present after 1 year, this is a strong indication of developmental difficulties.
50
Q
  • Jean Piaget is one of the most influential figures in developmental psychology, insisting that there are qualitative…
  • Piaget held that children pass through…
  • What did Piaget believe about cognitive growth?
A
  • differences between adult and childhood thought
  • 4 stages of cognitive development, each stage being qualitatively different from the last.
  • that it is a process which begins at birth and proceeds through these stages
51
Q
  • According to Piaget, during infancy, children learn from…
  • Piaget refers to these organized patterns of behaviour and/or thought as __
  • According to Piaget, infants develop __ schemata, characterized by __ __, whereas older children develop __ schemata, characterized by..
A
  • interacting with the environment through reflexive behaviours (e.g., based on repeated experiences with the grasping reflex, they learn they can grasp things)
  • schemata
  • behavioural schemata; action tendencies; operational schemata; more abstract representations of cognition
52
Q
  • What is adaptation according to Piaget?
A
  • Adaptation takes place through two complementary processes:
    (1) assimilation - the process of interpreting new information in terms of existing schemata
    (2) accommodation - occurs when information doesn’t really fit into existing schemata; it is the process of modifying existing schemata to adapt to this new information
53
Q
  • What is the first stage in Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development?
A

1) Sensorimotor Stage (0-2) - Primary and secondary circular reactions and object permanence develops.
- Primary circular reactions - infant begins to coordinate separate aspects of movement. This is the advent of goal-oriented behaviour. For example, when the infant is hungry, they will suck indiscriminately, trying to gain satisfaction from putting something in their mouth. Because of the repetition of this action, it is referred to as circular.

While primary circular reactions are restricted to motions concerned with the body, secondary circular reactions are directed towards manipulation of objects in the environment.

Object permanence occurs when the child realizes that objects continue to exist even though the child cannot perceive their existence. The saying “out of sight, out of mind” is literally true for infants who have not developed object permanence.

54
Q

Object permanence marks the beginning of __ __, meaning the child has begun to…

A
  • representative thought; make mental representations of external objects and events.
55
Q
  • Once the child has developed object permanence (i.e., representative thought), they have entered which stage of development?
A
  • The preoperational stage
56
Q
  • The preoperational stage lasts from….and is characterized by..
  • During the preoperational stage, children have the capacity to understand the concept that objects…
  • Another important feature of cognition during the preoperational stage is __, or the tendency to be able to…
  • At this stage, a kid might know that they have a sister, but they might not be able to tell you if their sister has a sister. This is referred to as __
A
  • 2-7 years; the beginning of representational thought
  • exist, even if they can’t perceive their existence
  • centration; focus only on one aspect of a phenomenon. For example, children in the preoperational stage cannot take the perspective of other people and cannot understand that relationships are reciprocal.
  • egocentrism
57
Q
  • In another example of centration, children in the preoperational stage are unable to understand the concept of __, the notion that physical…
  • How did Piaget demonstrate this concept?
A
  • conservation; physical properties of matter (such as volume and quantity) do not change simply because they appearance of matter changes
  • By showing preoperational children two identical beakers (A and B) filled to the same level with a coloured liquid. He asked the children if each beaker contained same amount of liquid, and they were able to say yes. However, when he poured the same amount of liquid into beakers of different sizes (one taller, one shorter), the children will say the taller beaker has more liquid. When they are both poured back into same sized beakers, the children again would say they are equal.
58
Q
  • During the 3rd stage, or concrete operational stage (ages _ to _), children can…
  • These children have difficulty with ..
A
  • (7-11), conserve and take the perspective of others into account, but are limited to working with concrete objects or information that is directly available.
  • abstract thought
59
Q
  • In the fourth stage, and the approach of adolescence, the child enters the period of true __ __, and begins to..
A
  • formal operations; think like a scientist (that is, form hypotheses and make deductions)
60
Q
  • The difference between formal operational thought and concrete operations can be seen in Piaget’s pendulum experiment. Explain.
A
  • Children were given a pendulum for which they could vary the length of the string, the weight of the pendulum, the force of the push and the height of the swing. They were asked to find out what determined the frequency of the swing. Children in the concrete operational stage manipulated the variables at random and even distorted the data to fit preconceived ideas. Adolescents, on the other hand, were able to old all variables but one at a given time constant, proceed methodologically, and discover, no matter what hypotheses they may have started with, the length of the string along effects the frequency,
61
Q
  • Piaget had an interesting theory about the relationship between language and thought. He believed that how we use language depends on..
  • page 80 for arguments against piaget
A

-which cognitive stage we are in. In other words, he believed that the development of thought directed the development of language.

62
Q
  • Lev Vygotsky’s work has contributed to our understanding of…
  • Vygotsky believed that the engine driving cognitive development is the…
A
  • cultural influences on cognitive development
  • Child’s internalization of various aspects of the culture - rules, symbols, language, so on. As the child internalizes these various interpersonal processes, the child’s cognitive activity develops accordingly.
63
Q
  • Vygotsky is known for his concept of the…

- He believed that the child needs _ to develop…

A
  • zone of proximal development, referring to those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed, but are in the process of development.
  • guidance; skills ^ - For example, a child can improve his original score on a test by getting guidance from an adult. The difference between the two scores (initial and post-guidance) indicates the zone of proximal development.
64
Q
  • Name and describe the 4 basic components of language
A

1) Phonology - the actual sound stem of language. Children must learn to produce and recognize sounds of language, separating them from environmental noises and speech sounds that do not denote differences in meaning.
2) Semantics - involves the learning of word meanings. For example, a child must learn that certain combinations of phonemes represent certain physical objects or events, and that certain words refer to entire categories, such as women, while other words refer to specific member of categories, such as mommy.
3) Syntax - how words are put together to form sentences. The child must notice the effects of word order on meaning.
4) Pragmatics - the actual efficient use of language. Often, the same sentence will have two or more very different meanings. The child must learn to recognize these inflections and must learn to produce them as well.

65
Q
  • What is categorical perception?
A
  • the ability to distinguish between differences in sound that do not mean differences in meaning, and those differences in sound that do denote differences in meaning.
66
Q
  • How many phonemes, or speech sounds, in the english language?
A
  • about 40
67
Q
  • An important precursor to language is __
A
  • babbling. Without exception, children - including deaf children - spontaneously begin to babble throughout their first year
68
Q
  • In an important study, Lenneberg, Rebelsky and Nicols (1965) showed what about babbling?
  • For deaf children, verbal babbling stops when?
  • An interesting study by Petitto and Marenette found what about babbling children who are deaf and use sign language?
A
  • that the age babbling begins is about the same for hearing children with hearing parents, hearing children with deaf parents, and deaf children. However, for hearing children, babbling sometimes continues and becomes more frequent, reaching its highest frequency between 9-12 months.
  • soon after it begins
  • that they appear to babble with their hands via sign language
69
Q
  • By about __ __ (age), the child may know __ of words, but will usually utter them…
  • Because of this limitation, a word can…
  • A toddler’s use of a single word to express a complete thought is known as __
A
  • 18 months; dozens; one at a time
  • mean more than one thing. For instance, depending on the child’s intonation and/or accompanying gestures, the child could be using the word ‘apple’ to label an apple, to ask for an apple, to ask whether a particular object is an apple…and so on.
  • holophrasis (the single word used is called a holophrase)
70
Q
  • At what age will children generally begin combining words?
A
  • 18-20 months
71
Q
  • Around what age to children begin producing longer sentences?
  • As children begin to master complex general rules, we often see what is referred to as __ __ __
  • Many of these errors are universal and not the result of environmental influence. For example, almost all boys at this age use ‘hisself’ instead of ‘himself’, even though children probably never hear the word ‘hisself’ used by an adult. It is thought that children are generalizing using some internalized rule. What does this suggest about language acquisition?
A
  • 2.5-3
  • errors of growth or overregulation (e.g., child will say “i runned to the store” instead of “I ran”)
  • that it may not be the result of imitation and reinforcement, but the active application of a dynamic internalized set of linguistic rules.
72
Q
  • For the most part, language is substantially mastered by what age?
A
  • 5
73
Q
  • Noam Chomsky is known for his study of __ __
  • He focused on __ __, or changes in..
  • Chomsky noted what about children’s ability to acquire language?
  • Noam Chomsky’s proposed that the innate capacity for language acquisitions was called a…., and is thought to be triggered by…
  • The LAD enables infants to..
A
  • transformational grammar
  • syntactic transformations; word order that differ with meaning
  • That they could learn to make syntactic transformations effortlessly at an early age. Therefore, he concluded that this ability must be innate.
  • language acquisition device (LAD); exposure to language
  • listen to and process sounds
74
Q
  • Nativists such as Chomsky believe in a critical period for language acquisition between which ages?
  • What do they believe would happen if a child was not exposed to language during this time?
  • How was this proven via research?
  • What did this research demonstrate about critical periods of language acquisition?
A
  • 2 to puberty
  • then being exposed to language later would be ineffective
  • A case of severe child abuse (Genie). Genie was almost completely isolated from human contact from age 2-13. Although she had been exposed to no language during this time, after training, she was able to learn some aspects of syntax. Still, she was unable to master other aspects of syntax.
  • that, instead of a critical period in language development, there may be a sensitive period in language development.
75
Q
  • What is a sensitive period?

- When do most psychologists consider to be the sensitive period for language development?

A
  • A sensitive period is a time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of a particular ability.
  • before the onset of puberty
76
Q
  • Freud was a pioneer in charting personality and __growth
  • For Freud, human psychology and human __ were linked
  • He made the assertion that, far from lying dormant until __, the libido is present…
  • What did he believe were the underlying dynamic forces that accounted for human psychological processes?
A
  • emotional
  • sexuality
  • puberty, at birth
  • libidinal energy and the drive to reduce libidinal tension
77
Q
  • Freud hypothesized __ distinct stages of psychosexual development. In each stage children are..
  • Each stage differs in the…
A
  • 5; faced with a conflict between societal demands and the desire to reduce the libidinal tension associated with different body parts.
  • manner in which libidinal energy is manifested and the way in which the libidinal drive is met
78
Q
  • According to Freud, when does fixation occur?
A
  • When a child forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood
79
Q
  • The first of Freud’s stages is the __ stage (age range?)
  • During this stage, gratification is obtained primarily through…
  • Libidinal energy is centered where?
  • What is the fixation and what would it lead to?
A
  • oral; 0-1
  • the putting of objects into the mouth by biting and sucking
  • the mouth
  • An orally fixated adult would likely exhibit excessive dependency.
80
Q
  • The second of Freud’s stages is the __ stage (age range?)
  • During this stage, gratification is obtained primarily through…
  • Libidinal energy is centered where?
  • What is the fixation and what would it lead to?
A
  • anal; 1-3
  • elimination and retention of waste materials
  • the anus
  • excessive orderliness or sloppiness in the adult
81
Q
  • The third of Freud’s stages is the __ stage (age range?)

- The central event of this stage is…

A
  • Phallic or Oedipal; 3-5

- the resolution of the Oedipal conflict for male children, or the Electra conflict for female children.

82
Q
  • Describe the Oedipal conflict

- How is this conflict resolved? (2)

A
  • The male child envies his father’s intimate relationship with his mother and fears castration at the father’s hands. He wishes to eliminate his father and possess his mother, but the child feels guilty about these wishes.
  • 1) To successfully resolve the conflict, he deals with his guilt feelings by identifying with the father, establishing his sexual identity, and internalizing moral values.
    2) The child, to a large extent, de-eroticizes, or sublimates his libidinal energy into something socially acceptable. This may be expressed through collecting objects or focusing on school work.
83
Q
  • Describe the Electra conflict
A
  • Freud did not elaborate much on the electra complex, although he theorized a similar process for females. Since females can’t have castration fears (they are thought to have penis envy), girls are expected to be less sex-typed and less morally developed
84
Q
  • Once the libido is sublimated, the child has entered the 4th stage, which is called _, and lasts…
A
  • Latency; until puberty
85
Q
  • Freud’s 5th stage is called the __ stage (ages?)
  • According to Freud, if prior development has proceeded correctly…
  • What if the sexual traumas of childhood were not resolved?
A
  • Genital (puberty through adulthood)
  • people should enter into health heterosexual relationships
  • such behaviours such as fetishism may result
86
Q
  • Erik Erikson’s theory is a __ theory, which holds that development is…
  • In each of the crises, there is a…
  • Psychosocial theory emphasizes…
  • Erikson believed that development occurred through…
A
  • psychosocial; a sequence of central life crises
  • possible favoured outcome and a possible unfavoured outcome
  • emotional development and interaction with the social environment
  • resolutions of conflicts between needs and social demands; these conflicts occur in stages
87
Q
  • Name Erikson’s 1st stage.
  • What happens if it is resolved successfully?
  • What if the unfavourable outcome wins?
A
  • 1) Trust vs. Mistrust (first year of life)
  • The child will come to trust their environment, as well as themselves
  • If mistrust wins, the child will often be suspicious of the world, possibly throughout their life.
88
Q
  • Name Erikson’s 2nd stage.
  • What happens if it is resolved successfully?
  • What if the unfavourable outcome wins?
A
  • Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years)
  • A feeling of will and an ability to exercise choice and self-restraint. A child will have a sense of competence and autonomy.
  • A sense of doubt and lack of control - a feeling that what happens is the result of external influences rather than one’s own volition
89
Q
  • Name Erikson’s 3rd stage.
  • What happens if it is resolved successfully?
  • What if the unfavourable outcome wins?
A
  • Initiative versus Guilt (3-6 years)
  • Purpose, the ability to initiate activities, the ability to enjoy accomplishment
  • If guilt wins, the child will become so overcome by the fear of punishment that the child may either unduly restrict themselves, or may overcompensate by showing off
90
Q
  • Name Erikson’s 4th stage.
  • What happens if it is resolved successfully?
  • What if the unfavourable outcome wins?
A
  • Industry vs. inferiority (6-12 years)
  • The child will feel confident, will be able to exercise their abilities and intelligence in the world, and will be able to affect the world in the way the child desires.
  • A sense of inadequacy, a sense of inability to act in a competent manner, and low self-esteem.
91
Q
  • Name Erikson’s 5th stage.
  • What happens if it is resolved successfully?
  • What if the unfavourable outcome wins?
A
  • Identity versus role confusion (adolescence)
  • This stage encompasses what Erikson referred to as “psychological revolution”. The favourable outcome is fidelity, the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties.
  • Unfavourable outcomes are confusion of one’s identity and a kind of amorphous personality that shifts from day to day
92
Q
  • Name Erikson’s 6th stage.
  • What happens if it is resolved successfully?
  • What if the unfavourable outcome wins?
A
  • Intimacy vs isolation (the main crisis of adulthood)
  • Love, the ability to have intimate relationships with others, and the ability to commit oneself to another person and to one’s own goals
  • An avoidance of commitment - a kind of alienation and distancing oneself from others and one’s ideals. Isolated individuals are either withdrawn or only capable of superficial relationships with others.
93
Q
  • Name Erikson’s 7th stage.
  • What happens if it is resolved successfully?
  • What if the unfavourable outcome wins?
A
  • Generativity versus stagnation (middle age)
  • AN individual capable of being productive, caring, contributing member of society
  • A sense of stagnation and may become self indulgent, bored, and self-centred, with little care for others
94
Q
  • Name Erikson’s 8th stage.
  • What happens if it is resolved successfully?
  • What if the unfavourable outcome wins?
A
  • Integrity vs despair (old age)
  • One reflects on their life with a sense of integrity or despair. If favourable resolved, we see wisdom, which Erikson defined as detached concern in life itself, assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and an acceptance of the fact that one’s life has been worth while; the individual is ready to face death
  • Feelings of bitterness about one’s life, a feeling that life has been worthless, and at the same time, fear of one’s own impending death.
95
Q
  • Temperament refers to…
  • Temperament is thought to be somewhat heritable and to emerge when?
  • What are some core concepts among many temperament theories?
A
  • individual differences, as well as an individual’s pattern of responding to the environment.
  • During infancy - it is also thought to be stable across time and to be pervasive across situations
  • activity level, negative emotionality, sociability
96
Q

Describe Thomas and Chess’s study on temperament.

A
  • They performed a longitudinal study to examine temperament. Based on their study, they proposed 3 categories of infant behavioural and emotional style:
    1) “easy” - Generally displayed positive mood, regularity in bodily functions, and easy adaptation to new situations.
    2) “slow to warm up” - initially withdrew, but soon able to adapt to new situations
    3) “difficult” - negative emotions, irregular bodily functions, tendency to withdraw in new situations
97
Q
  • Temperament is measures in 3 ways?:
A
  • parental reports of child behaviour, observations in naturalistic settings (at home), observations in labs
98
Q
  • Jerome Kagan, a pioneering psychologist and researcher in the field of human development, conducted a study of temperament on children’s behaviours. This longitudinal research examined…
  • His conclusion was…
A
  • human temperament in children from infancy to adolescence to distinguish if early signs of inhibited or uninhibited behaviour in early infancy predict future temperament profiles.
  • that temperament is a strong predictor of adult behaviours
99
Q
  • Peter Wolff conducted research with newborn babies. Using __, he identified…
  • interestingly, Wolff found what about nonparents?
  • What did Wolff observe about crying infants when people leave rooms?
  • How early do infants learn that parents respond to their crying?
A
  • spectrograms; 3 distinct patterns of crying:
    1) the basic cry - usually associated with hunger
    2) the angry cry - assoc with frustration
    3) the pain cry - following a painful stimulus
  • that even nonparent adults react with heart-rate accelerations following infant pain cries.
  • he found that if a person an infant was staring at left the room, the infant would cry, but the crying would stop when the person came back into the room
  • as early as the second month
100
Q
  • One of the earliest social and communicative signals to appear in infants is the
  • At first, what causes smiling in infants?
  • After this, __ __, or smiling associated with…
  • At first, which faces elicit smiles?
A
  • smile
  • almost any stimulus
  • social smiling; smiling associated with facelike patterns develops
  • almost any face, until about 5 months of age, when only familiar faces tend to elicit smiles
101
Q
  • The fear response also follows a certain developmental course from undifferentiated to increasingly specific. AT first, fear is evoked through…
  • During the first year, an infant may experience __ and __ anxiety.
  • By the end of the first year, however, the fear response is reserved for…
  • Very often, the emotional response of a child is __ dependend
A
  • Any change in level of stimulation (e.g., turning a light on or off can elicit same response)
  • separation, stranger
  • the sudden absence of a specific person (eg., mom) or the presence of an object or person who in the past had been harmful to the child.
  • context (e.g., a novel stimulus may elicit a smile in a familiar context or fear if presented in an unfamiliar situation)
102
Q
  • Describe Harry Harlow’s research.

- What did Harry conclude from this study?

A
  • Harlow studied attachment. He studied baby rhesus monkeys separated from their mothers. In his most famous experiment, he took newborn baby monkeys from they mothers 6-12 hours after birth, and placed them in cages with surrogate mothers. One type of surrogate mother was a wire cylinder with a feeding nipple attached, and the other type was a wood cylinder covered with terrycloth, which did not have a nipple or produce food. Overwhelmingly, the monkeys preferred the cloth mother.
  • That “contact comfort” was more essential in bonding than providing for physical needs.
103
Q
  • Harry also tried raising monkeys exclusively with either closth or wire mothers and observed their social interactions. What did he find?
  • He then raised some monkeys in total isolation and found that…
  • What is the phenomenon that Harlow discovered during the isolation study?
A
  • that the wire monkeys were less socially adept and took longer to socially integrate with other monkeys
  • these monkeys were severely dysfunctional. However, monkeys that were isolated for up to one year could be brought into monkey society by other monkeys. However, monkeys who had been isolated for a year or more were beyond help. They were sexually inept, aggressive and would often be abused by other monkeys.
  • That “therapy monkeys” would take on the task of bringing these dysfunctional monkeys back into society.
104
Q
  • A more naturalistic study on human children was done by John Bowlby during the last half of the 1940s. Bowlby studied children who..
A
  • were brought up in institutions such as foster homes and orphanages; in these institutions, they were physically well cared for, but often lacked intimate body contact. Such children tended to be timid and asocial.
105
Q
  • Bowlby identified several phases of the attachment process. What are they?
A

1) Pre-attachment phase - lasts several weeks. The infant reacts identically to every adult and smiling face.
2) By about 3 months of age, the second phase of attachment is reached when the infant discriminates between familiar and unfamiliar faces.
3) ONly at 6 months do we see the infant seeking out and responding specifically to the mother
4) From 9-12 months, the bonding intensifies and the child begins expressing stranger anxiety
5) In the 2nd year, the child reacts to the mother’s absence with strong protest - Bowbly called this SEPARATION ANXIETY
6) In the 3rd year, the child is able to separate from the mothers without prolonged distress

106
Q
  • Mary Ainsworth demonstrated the universality of the sequence of attachment with a study of __ __
  • Describe her experiment.
A
  • Ugandan infants
  • Her experiment was called the “strange situation experiment”, and it was implemented to assess the quality of the child-mother attachment relationship. Page 88 for various ways that the mother and a stranger interact with the infant in the room.
107
Q
  • Ainsworth observed and assessed infant behaviour, focusing on..
  • What did she find based on her experiment?
A
  • the infant’s reaction to separation and reunion
  • She classified infant’s behaviour into 3 types:
    1) Insecure/avoidant (Type A) - Not distressed when left alone with the stranger, and avoid contact with mother on her return.
    2) Secure (Type B) - mildly distressed during separations, but greet her positively when she returns
    3) Insecure/resistant (Type C) - distressed during the separation and are inclined to resist physical contact with mother on her return
108
Q
  • Lorenz’s work on imprinting with the Jackdaw bird led him to believe that…
A
  • all imprinting takes place during certain critical period (the bird didn’t have interest in it’s own species and even tried to mate with lorenz.
109
Q
  • Some of the most heated debates in developmental psychology have centered on the development of moral thought and action. A leading figure in this debate was Lawrence __, who believed that…
A
  • Kohlberg; there were 3 phases of moral thought, with each phase consisting of two stages each, for a total of 6 stages. Each stage builds upon the other and is associated with changes in cognitive structure.
110
Q
  • Describe Kohlberg’s first phase:
  • The orientation during this stage is…
  • In stage two, there is an orientation toward…
  • Stage 2 has been called the __ __ stage
A

Phase 1: Preconventional morality - right and wrong are defined by the hedonistic consequences of a given action (punishment or reward)

  • toward PUNISHMENT AND OBEDIENCE
  • RECIPROCITY - an “ill scratch your back, you scratch mine” orientation.
  • instrumental relativist stage
111
Q
  • Describe Kohlberg’s second phase:
  • In stage 3, there is an emphasis on…
  • In stage 4, there is an emphasis on…
A
  • Phase 2: Conventional Phase of Morality - which is based on social rules. Once again, there are two stages in this phased.
  • “GOOD GIRL, NICE BOY” ORIENTATION, in which one seeks the approval of others
  • LAW AND ORDER ORIENTATION - the 4th stage sees morality defined by the rules of authority
112
Q
  • Describe Kohlberg’s third phase:
  • In stage 5, there is an emphasis on…
  • In stage 6, there is an emphasis on…
A

Phase 3: Post Conventional Morality

  • SOCIAL CONTRACT ORIENTATION - Moral rules are seen as a convention that is designed to ensure the greater good
  • acting according to a set of universal ethical principles
113
Q
  • What is the Heinz Dilemma?
A
  • It was an experiment designed by Kohlberg to determine the moral level of a given individual; this tests consists of a series of hypothetical moral dilemmas.

The subjects were asked what the character of a story should go and give a reason. BAsed on the reasoning they give, subjects can be placed in one of the 6 stages. One of the moral dilemmas was about a man named Heinz, whose wife was dying of a rare disease. A druggist in town had the cure but would not sell it to Heinz for an affordable price, so he broke in and stole it.

The question was, “was Heinz wrong or right, and why?” A child in stage 3 might respond that Heinz was wrong because it is not nice to steal. Another child in stage 3 might respond that Heinz was right because it wouldn’t be nice to let one’s wife die. Essentially, the actual decision is not as important as the thought processes that underlie it.

114
Q
  • The __ phase of Kohlberg’s work has especially come under attack
  • What did Carol Gilligan contribute to this attack? She asserted that…
  • What did she point out about Kohlberg’s participants?
  • Gilligans theory centers on the idea that…
A
  • post conventional (although all phases have beed attacked)
  • She asserts that males and females adopt different perspectives on moral issues, and that these differences stem from the different ways in which boys and girls are raised.
  • That they were all male, so his research shouldn’t be used to evaluate females
  • women adopt an interpersonal orientation that is neither more or less mature than the rule-bound thinking of men. In other words, she argues that women’s morality tends to be focused on caring and compassion, and that they are concerned with relationships and social responsibilities.
115
Q
  • Sociobiologists believe that gender role differences should be understood according to an __ perspective - that…
A
  • evolutionary; men and women develop gender stereotypes behaviours because of the historical survival function of these behaviours
116
Q

Social learning theorists point to the __ __ and emphasize that children model their behaviours on…

A
  • social environment; those of adults and other children of the same gender
117
Q

Cognitive developmental theorists stress the importance of __ that children have regarding gender

A
  • cognitions
118
Q
  • AN example of a cognitive developmental theory was proposed by Kohlberg, and is a __ __ theory of __-__
  • During the first stage called __ __ (ages?)…
  • The second stage called __ __ (ages)..
  • The third stage called __ __ (ages)…
A
  • three stage theory of self-socialization
  • GENDER LABELLING (2-3) - children acheive gender identity; they realize they are a member of a particular sex, accept they are a boy or girl and are able to label themselves as such
  • GENDER STABILITY (3-4) - marks the time period when children can predict that they will still be a boy or girl when they grow up, but this understanding is superficial and dependent on a physical notion of gender
  • GENDER CONSISTENCY (4-7) - children understand the permanency of gender, regardless of what one wears or how one behaves
119
Q
  • Gender Schematic Processing Theory, proposed by __ and __, builds on Kohlberg’s theory and holds that..
A
  • Martin and Halverson; as soon as children are able to label themselves, they begin concentrating on those behaviours that seem to be associated with their gender and pay less attention to those they believe are associated with the opposite gender.
120
Q
  • Dianna Baumrind proposed…by measuring…

- Name and describe the things she proposed

A
  • three distinct parenting styles; parental control, nurturance, clarity of communication, and maturity demands

1) Authoritarian - tend to use punitive control methods and lack emotional warmth
2) Authoritative - have high demands for child compliance (but score low on punitive control methods)
3) Permissive - score very low on control/demand measures

121
Q
  • Research suggests that children with authoritative parents are characterized as being more…
  • Research suggests that children with authoritarian or permissive parents tend to…
A
  • more socially and academically competent

- have difficulties in school and peer relations

122
Q
  • Differences have been found in how fathers and mothers interact with their children. Fathers tend to…while mothers tend to…
A
  • play more vigorously with their children than mothers do, while mothers tend to stress over verbal interactions.

GRE Psychology (7 decks)

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