Social Psychology

Question 1

What do social cognitions represent

Answer 1

Social cognitions represent our beliefs, attitudes & knowledge towards a health behaviour

They are intrinsic to us & vary between individuals

They are modifiable determinants of behaviour

They give rise to social behaviour (health promotion activities, disease prevention)

Question 2

Explain the difference between Continuum and Stage Models

Answer 2

Continuum:
People are likely to perform a behaviour depending on their position on a continuum
- Health Belief Model (HBM)
- Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)

Stage Models:
People move through distinct ‘stages’ towards behaviour
- Transtheoretical Model (TTM)
- Health Action Processes Approach (HAPA)

Question 3

Explain the Health Belief Model

Answer 3

Health Belief Model:
Representation of health behaviour divided into:
1. Perception of illness threat (perceived susceptibility & severity) - demographic variables

2. Evaluations of behaviour to counteract the threat (benefits and cost of alternative action)

Question 4

What are the limitations of the Health Behaviour Model

Answer 4

• Small effect sizes
• Often uses cross-sectional data (can’t imply causation)
• Other cognitions found that predict behaviour more strongly (intention)

Question 5

Explain the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Azjen, 1991)

Answer 5

Behaviour is determined by intentions to engage in behaviour and perceived behavioural control.

Intentions determined by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control

Question 6

What is the predictive value of Theory of Planned Behaviour (meta analyses - Armitage & Conner, 2001)

Answer 6

Intentions strongest predictor of behaviour

Attitudes strongest predictor of intention

Attitude, Subjective Norm, Perceived Behavioural Control predict 39% variance in intention

Question 7

What are the advantages of Theory of Planned Behaviour

Answer 7

TPB proposes how cognitions affect behaviour directly

It includes social influences on action

TPB has been successfully applied to a range of health behaviours

TPB widely used in interventions to change behaviour

Question 8

What are the limitations of Theory of Planned Behaviour

Answer 8

• There is significant variation across components (subjective norm in particular)
• More successful in predicting behaviours under volitional control, less successful with complex ‘risk’ behaviours & w/ yungins
• Emphasis on rational / conscious reflection of decision making (may not apply to all decisions)

Question 9

Explain the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983)

Answer 9

Change is a process, not an event (emerged from work w addictive behaviours)
Process through 5 discrete stages:
1. Pre-contemplation
2. Contemplation
3. Preparation
4. Action
5. Maintenance
Relapse

Question 10

What are some strengths of Transtheoretical Model

Answer 10

• Very popular, appealing model
• Allows for relapse as well as forward progression
• Highlights importance of maintenance
• Behaviour change is dynamic, not linear

Question 11

What are some Weaknesses of the Transtheoretical Model

Answer 11

There is weak evidence to support stages

• Little support for distinct stages with different cognitive processes (Rosen, 2000)
• Difficult to define and measure stages

Question 12

What are the differences between motivational and volitional stages of behaviour change

Answer 12

Pre-decisional (motivation)

Pre-actional (volitional)

Actional (volitional)

Evaluating (motivation)

Question 13

What are three key problems for Theory of Planned Behaviour studies

Answer 13

Lack of initial TPB studies to identify appropriate targets

How does one change TPB cognitions?

Lack of assessment of effects on TPB cognitions

Question 14

What was the mean effect size of effects of tailoring on health behaviour change

Answer 14

There was a small effect size change r = .74

Programs that tailor on stage do better than those that do not

Question 15

What are some criticisms of Social Cognition Models

Answer 15

How strong is the predictive success (intention predict 36% of behaviour at best)

They identify the targets to change, but not how to change them

Emphasis on rational / conscious reflection in decision making (no impact of social cues / impulses)

SCM too simple to explain all health behaviours (Crossley, 2001)

Question 16

What is Ogden’s criticism of Social Cognitive Models

Answer 16

Ogden (2003) says SCMs are ‘bad theories’

1. Constructs are not falsifiable & cannot be tested
2. They compare analytic truths, not synthetic
3. They create / change rather than describe cognitions / behaviour

Question 17

What is the WHO definition of health

Answer 17

Health is a state of physical, mental, and social well-being, not merely absence of disease

Question 18

What are the seven features of a healthy lifestyle

Answer 18

1. Non-smoking
2. Moderate alcohol intake
3. 7-8 hours sleep each night
4. Exercise regularly
5. Maintain a healthy body weight
6. Avoid high-calorie snacks
7. Eat breakfast regularly

Question 19

What did researchers propose as a result of strong relationship in the seven features of a healthy lifestyle

Answer 19

Researchers proposed that people aged 75+ who carried out all 7 behaviours had comparable health with 35-44 year olds who did less than 3 behaviours

Question 20

Explain the case for behaviour change in health

Answer 20

nearly 50% of cancers are preventable

43% of tumours are due to unhealthy lifestyle

Question 21

Which behaviours are most difficult to change

Answer 21

Behaviours that motivate us are most difficult to change

• sexual behaviour
• energy seeking behaviour (eating habits)
• energy conserving behaviour (exercise levels)

Question 22

What is the definition of time orientation

Answer 22

The tendency to be motivated by one temporal frame (past, present, future) over others when making decisions

Question 23

How is time orientation linked to health?

Answer 23

They are linked through their associations with health behaviours
1. Preventative health behaviours (medical screenings) - future orientation

2. Health-promoting behaviours (exercise) - future orientation
3. Health risky behaviours (smoking, alcohol use) high present orientation, low future orientation

Question 24

Explain the Future Time Perspective & Obesity study (Hall Fong & Sansone, 2015)

Answer 24

Cross-sectional study of 135 adults using multiple measures of health behaviours and body composition

13% with high future-time orientation were obese

23% with low future-time orientation were obese

health behaviour intentions are inherently future-oriented

Question 25

Explain the Temporal Framing and the decision to take part in Type 2 diabetes screening study (Orbell & Haggar, 2006)

Answer 25

Experimental design with 210 adults measuring Consideration of Future Consequences (CFC) high scores = future oriented, low scores = past oriented High CFC individuals more sensitive to pos + neg distant consequences Low CFC individuals more sensitive to pos + neg past consequences

Question 26

What is procrastination

Answer 26

temporally bound, self-regulatory problem involving unnecessary + voluntary delay of important tasks despite recognition of negative consequences

Question 27

What are some features of procrastination

Answer 27

Priority of short-term mood regulation Switching to more rewarding / pleasurable tasks Emotional distress leads to regulation of immediate mood over action towards achieving goals

Question 28

What is future self-continuity and what does research tell us about it?

Answer 28

Whether the future self feels emotionally close, or distant Those who thought about the failed future self more, were emotionally closer to those who thought about the successful future self Increasing people's future -time orientation by imagining the future self gives stronger motivation to engage with health promoting behaviours

Question 29

Explain the stress orientation hypothesis

Answer 29

Stress initiates a cognitive shift away from future concerns, focusing on immediate concerns Narrows temporal focus to a threat, foreshortening temporal horizon w/ respect to current behaviour / outcomes

Question 30

Explain temporal self-appraisal theory (Wilson & Ross, 2007)

Answer 30

tendency to derogate distant past selves and praise recent past selves - students prompted to view past self as farther away rated the past self as more negative

Question 31

Explain the results of the arthritis & Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) study

Answer 31

online survey w 6month follow up | - No difference in view of past self unless ps had a temporal landmark since the first test

Question 32

Explain the link between self-rated health and personality

Answer 32

Expectations of future health were mainly influenced by amount of fatigue experienced

Question 33

Explain the study looking at procrastination as a vulnerability factor for hypertension and cardiovascular disease (Sirois, 2015)

Answer 33

For every 1 point increase in the trait-procrastination scale, the risk of having hypertension / cardiovascular disease goes up 63% This shows that trait procrastination (low FTO) is a vulnerability factor for poor coping with chronic illness

Question 34

What is weight stigma?

Answer 34

Negative attitudes held towards people who are overweight / obese + subsequent prejudice & discrimination

Question 35

What are the real world impacts of weight stigma in children

Answer 35

Weight based teasing - (71% boys enrolled in weight loss programme reported weight-based teasing + bullying) - Victims 2 times more likely to think of suicide attempt weight based teasing predicted binge eating 15 years later Academic performance - Teacher's rated heavier children's academic performance worse than results showed

Question 36

Explain how weight stigma occurs in the workplace + in healthcare environments

Answer 36

In the workplace - - overweight candidates less likely to be chosen for customer-facing role, especially in women In health care environments - blood pressure cuffs, weighing scales / chairs 2 small - practitioners perceive patients w obesity "sloppy, weak-willed, unattractive, non-compliant"

Question 37

Explain the study looking at weight bias in healthcare settings (IAT)

Answer 37

389 obesity professionals tested on explicit + implicit beliefs Explicit attitudes - obese individuals rated more lazy, stupid, worthless Implicit attitudes - significant anti-fat bias

Question 38

Explain the impact of weight stigma on pro-health behaviours

Answer 38

Weight stigma and food intake (Schvey et al., 2011) - Ps watched stigmatising video vs neutral video then offered M&Ms Intake was 3x greater for overweight women in stigma condition compared to neutral condition

Question 39

What did Kushner et al (2014) find in a study of weight stigma and education

Answer 39

negative stereotypes significantly reduced after training however, the negative attitudes returned 1 year later

Question 40

Define social facilitation and four explanations for social facilitation

Answer 40

When people eat in groups, they tend to eat more than they do alone Explanations for social facilitation: 1. Time extension theory (de Castro) - meals take longer, around food more, greater food intake 2. Arousal (Zajonc, 1965) Arousal activates appetite 3. Distraction - Not monitoring food intake, reduced awareness of fullness 4. Modelling - when confederates eat more, ps eat more

Question 41

Define modelling in relation to eating behaviour

Answer 41

The amount social others eat impacts on the amount eaten

Question 42

Define social norms (descriptive, injunctive & dynamic)

Answer 42

Social norms refer to what we believe others do / approve of Descriptive norms: Perceptions about what other people do Injunctive norms: Perceptions about what other people approve of Dynamic norms: Information of how people's behaviour changes over time

Question 43

Outline studies looking at social facilitation of eating (de Castro food diary, experimental evidence with Clendenen et al. - eating in groups / alone)

Answer 43

de Castro & de Castro Record food intake + social setting for 7 days Meals eaten with others 44% greater than meals eaten alone Clendenen et al 120 students either solo either, eating in pairs or groups of 4 Ps ate 90% more food in social group Affect much greater with friends compared with strangers

Question 44

Outline research into the effect of descriptive and injunctive norms on eating behaviour (Robinson et al vegetables, Stok et al, descriptive vs injunctive norms)

Answer 44

Descriptive norms + vegetable intake (Robinson et al, 2014) 77 students allocated to descriptive norm (most students eat + vegetables...) vs health message. Descriptive norms increased vegetable intake for low vegetable consumers Injunctive norms (Stok et al, 2014) 96 high schoolers allocated to descriptive, injunctive or control messages - Only descriptive norms were effective

Question 45

What are some individual differences that can affect social norms

Answer 45

1. Those with high need for social acceptance more likely affected 2. Those of a similar body weight more likely to influence 3. In-group vs out-group. Out-group less likely to have an effect

Question 46

What is the definition of Socioeconomic Status

Answer 46

SES is the social standing of an individual / group. It is often measured as a combination of education, income and occupation

Question 47

Outline research into SES and weight control attempts (Wardle & Griffith, 2001 / Relton et al, 2014)

Answer 47

Wardle & Griffith (2001) Those in low SES groups: Less likely to be trying to lose weight Less engaged in weight control behaviours Less engaged in restrictive dietary habits More likely to have greater body weight misperceptions Relton et al. (2014) Higher SES groups more likely to use a slimming club Lower SES groups more likely to use medication

Question 48

What are the 4 explanations for differences in obesity in different SES groups

Answer 48

1) Food scarcity + food intake Life-history Theory (scarcity of food leads to binge eating when food is available, often choosing high-calorie foods 2) SES and stress (Cardel) Monopoly study - high and low social status Those in high SES felt more pride, powerfulness, lower heart rate & ate less at lunch 3) Social Comparison Theory Either make downward social comparisons: comparing ourselves to less fortunate / successful Upward social comparisons: can be inspiring OR Perceived Relative Deprivation can lead to drive for resources and increased food intake 4) Ego depletion Those in low SES groups have depleted energy resources and poor self-regulation, leading to greater influence of external cues (food labels)