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Developmental Sem 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is creativity?

A

The generation of products or ideas that are novel and appropriate

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2
Q

What are the 4 Ps that creative research is divided into

A

Person (intrinsic factors: personality, motivation)

Process (behavioural + cognitive - what happens during creative thinking)

Press (social + environmental influences - inhibitors & facilitators of creativity)

Product (results of the creative process - painting, poems)

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3
Q

What is Divergent Thinking and Convergent Thinking?

A

Divergent Thinking - Generating novel ideas in response to a problem

Convergent Thinking - Ability to produce a single solution using logical + analytical thought processes

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4
Q

What are the four main Indices of Divergent Thinking?

A

Fluency: number of ideas you come up with

Originality: number of ideas you come up with that no one else has

Flexibility: number of categories the ideas can be organised into

Elaboration: amount of detail put into an idea

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5
Q

What is the difference between Tool Manufacture and Tool Innovation tasks?

A

Tool manufacture: Physical transformation of materials to help solve a problem

Tool innovation: Imagining the most suitable tool for a task

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6
Q

What is functional fixedness?

A

A cognitive bias where individuals struggle to think of ways of using an object outside of its traditional use

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7
Q

How does functional fixedness vary with age?

A

120 children give demonstration of the typical function of objects

6-7 year olds are less likely to select the correct object in the demonstration condition compared to control
whereas
5 year olds are unaffected by demonstrations

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8
Q

Summarise convergent thinking:
How can it be measured (young / older children)
False memories
Tools

A

Convergent Thinking is the ability to logically reach a single solution to a problem

It can be measured using RAT + insight problems in adults/older kids

For younger kids, tool-use tasks are more appropriate

False memories can prime better performance in RAT

Children as young as 2 can use tools to solve problems, 8 year olds can innovate tools to solve problems

Functional fixedness (6-7, doesn’t affect 5 year olds)

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9
Q

How do children compare to great apes in problem solving

A

Chimpanzees and orangutans performed better than 4 year olds in problem solving tasks, but worse than 6 and 8 year olds in using tools

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10
Q

What is subitizing and how does it develop?

A

Subitizing is the system dedicated to the perception of small exact numerosities (~3-4)

Development of subitizing
1-3 items between 2 and 5 years of age
3-4 items between 7 years and adulthood

Subitizing is most likely associated to the Visuo-spatial Working Memory

Children with math disability (dyscalculia) have reduced subitizing ability

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11
Q

What is ANS and what is it characterised by?

A

Approximate Number System (ANS) is our ability to estimate large numerosities when we don’t have time for counting

It is characterised by the ratio effect: Our ability to discriminate between numerical quantities reduces as quantities become more similar
Ratio closer to 1 - hard to discriminate, above 1 is easier

6 month old infants can perceive difference when there is a ratio of 2

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12
Q

How are numerosities in ANS tests represented visually?

A

Each numerosity is represented as a Gaussian curve of activation

A narrow curve of activation means less overlap, which would lead to a better performance in numerosity comparison task
Wide curve - more overlap - worse performance

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13
Q

What are some difficulties when studying ANS

A
  • Reliability (is low)
  • Perceptual confounds
  • Influence of executive skills
  • Is there a real ANS
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14
Q

Explain how infants solve word problems (RESE)

A
  1. create a Representation
  2. Extract relevant information
  3. Select appropriate operation
  4. Execute the operation
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15
Q

What are the four dimensions of strategy use to solve arithmetic problems

A
  1. Strategy repertoire: range of strategies an individual may use
  2. Strategy distribution: relative frequency of use
  3. Strategy efficiency: accuracy + speed in implementing a strategy
  4. Strategy selection: whether or not an individual makes appropriate strategy based on strategy efficiency
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16
Q

What is choice/no-choice strategy

A

Choice - individuals choose an appropriate strategy

No-choice - individuals given a strategy to use

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17
Q

What are domain-general influences on arithmetic

A

Mainly executive function skills:
- Working memory - ability to monitor + manipulate information in the mind

  • Inhibition - ability to ignore distractions & suppress unwanted responses
  • Shifting - capacity for flexible thinking & switching attention between different tasks

Language: children need good language skills to learn verbal number words, understand arithmetic instructions & word problems

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18
Q

When can children perform non-verbal calculations?

A

Preschool children can perform non-verbal calculations before they receive formal education - this is better with concrete support (fingers to count + manipulatives)

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19
Q

Explain when children learn the meaning of one (number-knowers)

A

2 year olds cam recide numerical sequences by rote, but haven’t understood numerical meaning of the words.
English-speaking children learn the meaning of 1 by 24-36 months

Children start off as pre-number-knowers (also called grabbers), then one-knowers, two-knowers - all the way up to cardinal-principle knowers (cardinal principle that the last number word = numerosity)

20
Q

Explain the 5 counting principles

A
  1. Stable order: number words are recited in a fixed order
  2. One-to-one correspondence: each object can only be counted once, all objects are paired with one number word
  3. Abstraction: any set of things can be counted (sounds, actions etc.)
  4. Order Irrelevance: order in which items are counted is irrelevant
  5. Cardinality: the last pronounced number word identifies numerosity of the set
21
Q

What are the different ways number words can be constructed

A

Transparency: transparent languages reflect place-value explicitly in number words
Mandarin: 11 = “ten-one”

Inversion: in some languages (German, Dutch) order of words for multi-digit numbers reversed)
German: 23 = (three and twenty)

Children have near perfect comprehension of + production of Arabic digits at beginning of formal schooling

22
Q

What are the effects in single digit processing

A

Distance effect: the closer two digits are in numerical value, the longer it takes to decide which is larger

Size effect: the larger the two digits are, the longer is takes to decide which is larger

Distance effect + size effect = ratio effect

23
Q

What are the effects in multi-digit numbers

A

Transcoding: number words + Arabic numbers
Additive rule: 349 = “three hundred (and) forty-nine

Multiplicative rule: 500 = “five hundred” (5x100)

Zero: 403 = “four hundred and three”; zeros are absent in spoken numbers, but essential in Arabic notation

By third grade (age 9) most children stop making these transcoding errors

24
Q

What are is the difference between Mathematical Learning Disorder (MLD) and Developmental Dyscalculia (DD)

A

Developmental Dyscalculia: used for more severe conditions - lowest 5-10%

Mathematical Learning Disorder: not as severe - bottom 25%

25
What are the characteristics of MLD and DD
- not unitary: individuals may excel at retrieving arithemtic facts from memory, but struggle in understanding these principles - Large inter-individual differences in children of the same age - Different developmental trajectories in different children - 4 assessments over 2 years with 5-7 year olds Exclusion criteria is necessary when testing to ensure low performance can't be explained by inappropriate education, neurological / psychiatric disorders
26
Explain the comorbidity of Developmental Dyscalculia
It is a heterogenous condition (diverse in character + content) Between 1/2 and 2/3 children with DD suffer from additional learning disorders (ADHD, Dyslexia, Language delay, motor deficit) not "pure" dyscalculia
27
What are some difficulties children with MLD and DD may face
Children with MLD and DD may suffer poor performance in: - Symbolic number processing - Size congruency effect (which number is larger) - Transcoding and number identification (naming + writing numbers) - Number line task - Children with DD more likely to use fingers to solve arithmetic problems (can carry on into adulthood)
28
What are the two groups that the core cognitive deficits those with DD have been categorised into?
Domain-specific theories - ANS deficit (impairment in ANS, can lead to weak representation in number words + Arabic digits) - Symbolic number processing (access deficit) (difficulties accessing numerical magnitude of symbolic numbers Domain-general theories - LTM (difficulty memorizing arithmetic facts - little evidence for this. Children with DD can encode + retrieve non-numerical content - Working Memory (Baddeley + Hitch 1974 - Verbal Store + Visuo-Spatial)
29
What are Bowlby's phases of attachment?
0-2 months: Pre-attachment phase, infants show little differentiation between familiar / unfamiliar faces 2-7 months: Infants recognize caregivers but don't show attachment behaviour on separation 7 months - 2 years: Infants protest on seperation + wary of strangers From 2 years: increased independence + recognition of caregiver's need & motives for absence. Child will rely on Internal Working Models to guide future social interactions
30
How was child behaviour coded in Strange Situation
- Proximity seeking - Contact maintenance - Resistance - Avoidance
31
What were the findings of the meta-analysis into frequency of attachment categories in non-clinical sample
- 62% secure - 15% insecure-avoidant 9% insecure-resistant - 15% insecure-disorganised
32
How does caregiver's mind-mindedness relate to attachment security
Caregiver's mind-mindedness = accuracy in interpreting what infant is thinking/feeling Secure attachment - high score in mind-related, lower score in non-attuned comments Insecure-resistant - higher score in non-attuned mind related comments compared with insecure-avoidant
33
What are the adult attachment interview categories?
Autonomous: coherent + well-balanced account of attachment experience Dismissing: deny importance of attachment / can't recall childhood / over-idealised representations with no evidence Preoccupied: unable to move on from childhood, still involved in issues relating to early attachments Unresolved: unresolved feelings related to death of loved one / trauma experienced
34
What did a longitudinal study find between attachment security in infancy and adolescence
Weak/no association between attachment security at 15 + 24 months and AAI classification at 18 years old
35
What are the different types of play
Sensorimotor play: making use of properties of objects (making them fall, making noise with them) from 2nd half of first year to 2 years old Pretend play - making non-literal use of object/action - First perform pretend action with themselves - Later use objects in pretend play - This process is called DECENTRATION
36
What are Parten's categories of social participation?
- Unoccupied: child not engaged in activity - Onlooker: child watching, not joining in - Solitary: child plays alone, away from others Parallel: child plays near others, with same materials, no interaction Associative: child interacts with others, doing similar things Cooperative: child interacts in complementary ways (helping another child build something, handing them objects)
37
What is Smilansky's four sequence development of play model?
1. Functional 2. Constructive 3. Dramatic 4. Games with rules
38
What are the three developmental stages of physical activity play (Pellegrini & Smith, 1998)
Rhythmical stereotypes: bodily movements characteristic of infants - kicking legs, moving arms Exercise play: running, jumping, climbing Rough-and-tumble play: wrestling, kicking, tumbling, rolling, chasing (not real fight) (constitutes 10% of playground play)
39
In a meta-analysis study, reviewing the role of pretend play, what are the three models that were observed?
- Epiphenomenal: pretend play has no role in development Equifinality: pretend play is one of a number of ways children can learn, but it's not necessary Essential: pretend play is essential/at least has privileged position for many aspects of development Conclusion: little evidence for crucial role of pretend play
40
What are three stages in expectations of friendship
6-8 years: based on common activities, living nearby, similar expectations 9-10 years: shared values, rules, sanctions become important 11-12 years: friendship based on understanding + self-disclosure, as well as shared interests (similar to adults)
41
What are sociograms?
visual representation of who plays with whom, based on observation Concentric lines - number of play partners Connecting lines - percentage of observations in which they have been seen playing together
42
What three main phenomena categorising sex differences in friendship
Segregation: from age 3+ tendency to play with others of same sex Differentiation: different styles of interactions in boys' and girls' groups Asymmetry: boys' groups are more cohesive + exclusionary than girls' groups
43
How has average child play changed in the recent past
Average child play has decreased more than 25% from 1981 to 1997 - 85% mothers agreed their children play less than they do - 54% mothers reported playing outside was child's favourite acitivity, 69% children reported this - 89% children reported watching TV/films and playing with friends as favourite activity Many mothers reported fear of predators/child molesters as reason for less willingness to let children play outside along, while crime statistics of crimes against children has gone down Shift from intrinsic interests (childhood free-play) to extrinsic interests (working for grades/goals/praise)
44
How has mental health changed in young people and why?
85% young people in recent samples have greater anxiety & depression scores than same age groups in 1950s Locus of control has changed - average young person in 2002 was more "external" than 80% of young people in 1960s Increased materialism and narcissism
45
What is egalitarian play?
Children don't tolerate airs of superiority/demands for special treatment and special rules

SEM 2 (6 decks)

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