social psychology Flashcards

Question

heuristics

Answer 1

=Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that people use to make judgments and solve problems quickly. used when: Time pressure Cognitive overload Low personal relevance Limited info

Answer 2

Accessibility: The extent to which schemas and concepts are readily available in a person's mind, influencing their judgments and interpretations. - how easily thoughts come to mind Priming: The process by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or concept, influencing subsequent behaviour or judgments. - Exposure to a stimulus affects later thoughts/behaviours. - exposure to one stimulus affects other behaviours etc without realising the connection

Answer 3

Social Facilitation: The tendency for the presence of others to improve an individual's performance on simple or well-learned tasks. Social Inhibition: The tendency for the presence of others to impair an individual's performance on complex or unfamiliar tasks.

Answer 4

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A process in which a belief or expectation leads to its own fulfilment, often without conscious awareness. - becomes soeone expects it to Pygmalion Effect: A form of self-fulfilling prophecy in which expectations of a person affect how they actually perform. - When someone has high expectations for another person's abilities, they are more likely to believe in their potential - This process reinforces the initial belief, creating a cycle where higher expectations lead to better outcomes.

Answer 5

The cues within an experimental setting that might influence the behaviour of participants and affect the results of a study. -unintentionally signal to participants how they should respond, potentially biasing the results. These cues can lead participants to change their behavior to align with what they perceive as the study's expected outcome, rather than their natural behavior. -Participants guess aim and change behaviour.

Answer 6

A phenomenon where individuals modify their behaviour when they know they are being observed.

Answer 7

1. Conformity (Asch)- The act of aligning one's behaviour or beliefs with those of a group or social norm. 2. Obedience (Milgram)- Compliance with the commands of an authority figure. - people obey either out of fear or out of a desire to appear cooperative-even when acting against their own better judgment and desires. 3. Social roles (Zimbardo) - the particular behaviors an individual exhibits within a given status.

Answer 8

1. Naive Scientist - A model of social thinking suggesting that people act like amateur scientists, trying to understand the social world by observing cause and effect. - logical, rational and systematic view of the world 2. Cognitive Miser - A model of social thinking that proposes that people tend to use the simplest and most efficient cognitive strategies to understand the social world due to limited cognitive resources. - cognitive shortcuts to make inferences and form judgments about the social world. - relying on heuristics 3. the motivational tactician - A model of social thinking suggesting that people are flexible and strategically choose between different cognitive strategies based on their goals, motives, and needs. - speed vs accuracy

Answer 9

System 1 = Fast, automatic, emotional System 2 = Slow, deliberate, logical

Answer 10

1. perceiver must make an inference systematic processing -> perceiver acts like a naive scientist; rational and logical analysis of available information, higher accuracy heuristic processing -> perceiver acts like a cognitive miser; quick and easy analsyis, lower accuracy depends on: time, cognitive overload, importance, information the motivational tactician; conditions for both processing

Answer 11

much evidence has now failed to replicate: Money priming Elderly priming Professor priming Warm cup/warm personality

Answer 12

-Priming age stereotype slows walk speed - When people are thinking about an old person they walk more slowly - seeing age-related words (primed) makes people walk more slowly. -Failed replication by Doyen et al in 2012; experimenter effect (experimenters behaviour influenced results)

Answer 13

-Thinking about professors (priming) improves IQ test -Failed replication across 40 cross-cultural labs - People thinking about professors vs hooligan, then give participants general knowledge quiz, those who were thinking about the professor gets more questions correct)

Answer 14

1. Williams & Bargh (1998) – Warm cup, warm heart -Holding something warm = warm personality judgment about others - No effect in larger sample, failed replication in 2019 by chabris et al 2. Strack – Facial feedback (1988) - suggests that our facial expressions can influence our emotional experience - smiling might make you feel happier, and frowning could make you feel sadder. - Only partial replication with mimicry, overall failed to replicate 3. Cuddy – Power posing (2010) - Posing increases confidence/hormones-Hormonal effects didn’t replicate

Answer 15

-Small sample sizes -Complex, socially driven experiments (required intervention by experimenter) -Selective reporting

Answer 16

1. the self reference effect - better memory for information that pertains to your self-schema or is relevant to you in some way 2. the better than average effect - always judging yourself as better than the average 3. social conformity (Asch) - replicated many times 4. milgrams obediance studies - not in modern times

Answer 17

A state of reduced self-awareness and personal identity that can occur when people are part of a large group.

Answer 18

The argument that individuals are not responsible for their actions because they were following orders from a legitimate authority. highlights how social influence and obedience can affect individual behaviour and moral responsibility.

Answer 19

the situation, the context, the presence of others, and the way we think. These elements interact to shape how individuals act in social settings.

Answer 20

-Biases are systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment. -They can distort social thinking and influence how research findings are interpreted or reported.

Answer 21

The logical error of focusing on the “winners” or survivors and overlooking the “losers” because they are not present or visible. - Focus on successes and ignore failures due to lack of visibility example: -WWII planes – reinforcing areas that weren’t hit, because those are what brought the plane back

Answer 22

-Favouring publication of significant/positive results -failure to publish the results of a study on the basis of the direction or strength of the study findings. -Leads to incomplete understanding of phenomena

Answer 23

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that supports one's existing beliefs or values, often ignoring contradictory evidence. - confirm the things your looking for - selecting only supporting data

Answer 24

-Selecting only evidence that supports one's position and ignoring or suppressing evidence to the contrary. - Only selecting results that suit desired outcome - Misrepresents actual findings

Answer 25

-A framework for understanding how individuals explain the causes of events and behaviours, both their own and others'. - occurs naturally and frequently motivated by: 1. the need to form a coherent view of the world 2. the need to control and predict outcomes - According to Heider - people have a basic need to attribute causality because this ascribes meaning to our world, making it clear, definable, and predictable, thereby reducing uncertainty

Answer 26

The perceived source of a behaviour or event, categorized as either internal (dispositional) or external (situational). 1. Situational Attribution: The explanation of behaviors or outcomes based on being external to the person such as environmental, nature of situation, contextual factors, luck, actions of others. 2. Dispositional Attribution: The explanation of behaviors or outcomes based on internal factors to the person, such as personality traits, character, mood, effort and abilities. We try to explain behaviour by attributing it to internal (dispositional) or external (situational) causes.

Answer 27

1. stability - is the behaviour permanent and lasting or temporary and fluctuating (attribution biases) - can be observed across time 2. controllability - can the behaviour be influenced by people vs the extent to which they are random - things person has control over

Answer 28

=The tendency to attribute others' behaviors to dispositional (internal) factors rather than situational (external) factors for people's behaviour. - overemphasise internal causes for others’ behaviour while underestimating situational factors.

Answer 29

- students read essays and were asked to rate the authors views - even when they knew the authors choice of essay topic was externally caused (they had no choice) they still assumed that what he wrote refelcted how he really felt about castro. they made an internal attribution from his behaviour. - essay topic - pro vs anti castro (communist leader)

Answer 30

= The explanation of behaviors or outcomes based on internal factors, such as personality traits, character, and abilities. - students interacting with unfriendly/friendly student - half were told she was acting spontaneously, half that she was instructed to act as she did - rate her friendliness - results showed no effect of the information

Answer 31

1. perceptual salience - The extent to which a person or object draws attention due to its characteristics or presence in a given situation. (most salient aspect) - internal attribution centered on them becomes much more accessible - e.g people thought that the actor they could see better had more impact on the conversation. (manipulating the seating arrangements) Attentional processes drive this—what we pay attention to, we blame.

Answer 32

Various effects suggest that bias is subject to the situation – we do not always make dispositional attributions. - importance of the situation e.g happy marriage: positive behaviour, internal attribution, negative behaviour, external attribution unhappy marriage: positive behaviour, external attribution, negative behaviour, internal attribution

Answer 33

=The tendency to attribute our own behaviour to external, situational factors and the behaviour of others to internal, dispositional factors. - We attribute differently to ourselves than we do to others Storms (1973) Study Observers vs actors explaining a conversation. Result: Observers made internal attributions for own behaviour; actors made external attributions on actors behaviours. Reversal occurred when actors saw video of themselves—then made internal attributions. Explanation: Perceptual salience: Focus on what’s in our view. Information availability: We know more about ourselves than others.

Answer 34

Group-based bias in attribution: Win = internal (skill) Loss = external (bad luck) Seen in sports fans or political groups. - we behave as though the ingroup is ourselves and the outgroup is not - dispositional attribution to negative outgroup behaviour and external attribution to positive behaviours - maintains our unfavourable outgroup image

Answer 35

=Attributing success to internal factors, failures to external factors. -Protects self-esteem. Stronger in Western cultures. The tendency to attribute positive outcomes to internal factors and negative outcomes to external factors to maintain self-esteem

Answer 36

-Many attributional biases are automatic. -Awareness helps switch to deliberate processing and take others’ perspectives.

Answer 37

The sense of control an individual has over their actions and circumstances, which can vary depending on cultural background and norms.

Answer 38

The amount of mental effort being used in the working memory, often influencing the strength of culturally normative tendencies.

Answer 39

The three components of confirmation bias are biased information searches, where people look for evidence that supports their existing beliefs; biased interpretation, where people interpret ambiguous evidence as support for their beliefs; and biased memory, where people recall information that supports their beliefs and forget or disregard information that contradicts them.

Answer 40

- the idea that certain psychological characteristics, behaviours, and experiences are common across all people and cultures Universal Norms: Norms that are considered universally valued across cultures.

Answer 41

- People from different cultures are not biased in the same way Collectivist vs Individualistic cultures *Collectivist => biased to situational attributions * Individualistic => biased to dispositional attributions * Beyond that, we are all collectivist and individualistic to an extent - collectivist cultures see themselves as part of a larger whole, while individualist cultures focus on the self as separate from others.

Answer 42

Social Norms: Collective behaviors, unspoken rules, fashions, customs, conventions, and "normal ways of behaving" shared by a group or society. - behavioural patterns shared by a group 1. Culturally Based: Vary across and within societies (e.g., Scottish vs Glasgow norms). 2. Dynamic: Can change over time or context (e.g., COVID greetings). 3. Behavioural Patterns: Shared within a group; reflect collective behaviour. (things we all do) 4. Enforced by Social Pressure: Deviating can lead to ostracism. 5. Explicit or Implicit: Some are stated clearly; others are understood socially. 6. Interdependence: We learn norms through others. 7. Choice: Individuals choose to follow or not. 8. Overlap with Laws: Some norms are also laws (e.g., not walking around naked).

Answer 43

- non-verbal queue (not talking to others waiting in a queue) - non contact greetings (waving) - how close should we stand to someone when talking to them (different in different cultures)

Answer 44

1. injunctive norm = perceptions about what others think should be done 2. descriptive norms = perceptions about what others actually do in a given situation 3. subjective norms = perceptions about what important others expect us to do

Answer 45

Prescriptive Norms: Tell us how to behave to fit into society. - social - related to behaviour and inform decision making - can affect health and wellbeing why we use them: - everyone else behaves like it - fitting in - how your taught to behave - social pressure - uncertainty of how to behave - lack of information

Answer 46

informational social influence: - Driven by the need to know what is right -what to do in uncertain situations. -Conforming because we believe others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct than ours and will help us choose an appropriate course of action; the need to know what's right. - seeing others as a source of information to guide our behaviour -Example: People guessing light movement alone vs in groups leads to a diferent conclusion. - we conform to others when the situation is ambiguous like a crisis or when other people are experts

Answer 47

Normative Social Influence: Conforming in order to be liked and accepted by others; the need to be accepted. -Leads to public compliance with the groups beliefs, but not always private acceptance of those beliefs and behaviours. - occurs in situations where we do what other people are doing not because we are using them as a source of information but because we want to fit in, not be rejected by the group. Example: Asch Line Study: (saying lines were the same length when they were not) -76% conformed at least once, when obvious that the group was wrong in it's judgements. -On average, 1/3 conformed when group gave wrong answer.

Answer 48

Attribution Theory: Collectivist cultures → more situational explanations. Individualist cultures → more dispositional explanations. Most people fall somewhere in between both extremes. Universality Challenges: Who defines “universal”? Cultural bias skews research results. Culture affects how we interpret psychological processes.

Answer 49

Private Acceptance: Conforming to other people’s behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right (informational social influence) Public Compliance: Conforming to other people’s behaviour publicly without necessarily believing in what we are doing or saying (normative influence?)

Answer 50

Sherif: (1936) - informational (ambiguous stimuli) - estimating light movement - Used the autokinetic effect (a stationary light in a dark room appears to move). Participants estimated how far the light moved – first alone, then in groups. -Alone: wide variation in estimates. -In groups: participants’ estimates converged to a group norm. - private acceptance - the need to know what is right (conforming cos they want to be correct) Asch (1951): -Participants asked to match line lengths. - unambiguous stimuli -All but one in the group were confederates who gave clearly wrong answers on purpose. -Measured whether the real participant would conform. -People conform even when the correct answer is obvious. -This is normative social influence – we conform to be liked or accepted.

Answer 51

1. obedience to authority - Following authority to prevent chaos. - we are socialised to obey legitimate authority figures - internalised -> The process through which people assimilate social norms to the point that they become internally driven motivations. (we still obey them even if the authority figure is not present) 2. reciprocity norm -The expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. - Returning favours; mutual cooperation. - if someone tells us their name we tell them it back

Answer 52

- encouraging unhealthy behaviour (drinking, smoking) - harmful practices (child marriage, FGM) - sustain discriminatory practises (violence in genocide)

Answer 53

1. social offence - rude behaviour - interrupting someone 2. social moores - unwritten rules about mortality and ethics - being openly racist 3. taboos - Strong prohibitions against certain behaviors, often related to disgust or morality. - burial rituals, sexual practices 4. breaking laws - murder, assault, robbery

Answer 54

1. the way we act - norms - conformity (Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard) - deindividuation (taking on identity of others around you) 2. how we perform - social facilitation - social inhibition - social loafing 3. group decision making

Answer 55

= The tendency for people to perform better on simple or well-learned tasks when in the presence of others. Key Points: Works best for tasks you already excel at (e.g., familiar activities). -Performance improves when individuals are evaluated in the presence of others. Example: You run faster when a friend is watching you. - the imagined presence of others causes the same effects - Performing a task with others who are doing the same thing you are - Performing a task in front of an audience that is not doing anything but observing you. - These have similar effects

Answer 56

1. Triplett (1898) asked children to wind up fishing lines on a reel, either by themselves or in the presence of other children - many did so faster when in the presence of other children than when by themselves 2. Rigglemen (1913) found in teams pulling a rope everyone did not show their maximum effort - process loss

Answer 57

- nature of the task is important in the presence of others on performance Coaction Effects: Changes in behavior that occur when individuals perform the same task simultaneously in the presence of others. Audience Effects: Changes in behavior that occur when individuals perform a task in front of an audience. Example: Performing a task faster when someone is watching you, like getting dressed quickly if someone is observing you.

Answer 58

1. simple tasks - task can be quicker to solve or perform when others are present than when performing alone - people and animals do better in the presence of others when the task is simple 2. difficult tasks - task can take longer to solve or perform when others are present than when performing alone - worse in presence of others when task is difficult

Answer 59

- male undergraduate students - task was to change into lab clothes and then change back into normal clothes - own clothes was faster with an audience present (simple, well-rehearsed task) - fastest with watching audience - lab clothes was slower with an audience present (difficult task)- slowest with watching audience - mere presence affects performance but watching audience enhances us further

Answer 60

Mere Presence: The simple fact of being in the presence of others, which can affect behavior even without direct interaction. Pro-social behavior: Presence of others can encourage prosocial actions (e.g., more contributions when eyes are watching, like in honesty boxes or charity). Example Study: Coffee room at Newcastle University—watching eyes led to increased contributions to the honesty box. CCTV Example: CCTV reduces antisocial behavior by 16%, reducing crime and encouraging prosocial behavior. how can we use this watching eyes concept to help recycling habits etc..

Answer 61

Audience Effects: Changes in behavior that occur when individuals perform a task in front of an audience. Spectator Effect: The influence that spectators have on participants in a sporting event. Home Audience Advantage: An assumed benefit experienced by athletes when participating in games and events at their home venue. - imagining a theatre show with no audience?

Answer 62

Online Teaching: The perception of being watched can influence how we behave or perform in a setting like virtual classrooms. Influence of Neurodiversity and Anxiety: The presence of others may have different effects on those with social anxiety or neurodivergent individuals (e.g., giving a presentation). cultural and audience affects: - east asian paticipants may be more affected- more anxiety over social judgement - US and European- being watched evoked feelings of safety

Answer 63

Arousal: An increase in physiological activation or energy - the presence of others increases physiological arousal - this makes it easier to do something that is simple but harder to do something complex or learn something new (flustered, perform less well) Dominant Response: The most likely or readily available response in a given situation, which is enhanced by arousal. Simple Tasks: The dominant response is likely the correct one (improving performance). Complex Tasks: The dominant response is less likely to be correct (impairing performance). Example: A skilled runner performs better in front of an audience, but a novice will struggle more.

Answer 64

Arousal stems from concern over being evaluated by others. "evaluation apprehension" Key Point: It's not just the presence of others, but the awareness that they are evaluating us that causes arousal and impacts performance.

Answer 65

-Presence of others causes attentional conflict, leading to arousal. Key Point: Dividing attention between the task and others' presence makes the dominant response more likely, while non-dominant tasks suffer.

Answer 66

Arousal occurs because we aim to create a good impression on others. Key Point: Easy tasks are easier to impress on, but complex tasks may lead to errors, causing impairment. - all three theories are reasonable arguments

Answer 67

= The tendency for individuals to reduce their individual effort when working on a group task. - people to exert less effort when working in a group where their individual contributions are not clearly visible or evaluated. -More common in group tasks, especially when individuals' efforts can't be measured (e.g., clapping in a large group or marching band). -Example: People shout less loudly in a group during a cheer than when alone. - peope do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks

Answer 68

- 6 blindfolded participants in a circle - earphones on - told to shout as loud as possible - were told they were shouting with either one person or a group (was just them) Results: Participants who believed they were shouting in a group shouted with less intensity than participants who believed they were shouting alone

Answer 69

=The feeling of reduced personal accountability in a group setting, leading to reduced individual effort. - complex tasks require people to bring different talents to the table, this causes them to perform better as their efforts will be seen.

Answer 70

=A process where multiple humans successively perform a task, like an error detection task. -means that multiple people perform or check the same task in sequence—so if one person makes an error, the next person has the opportunity to catch and correct it before it causes harm or failure. -knowing someone else will check your work can increase or decrease your own effort depending on the setting - increased accuracy of important decisions- diffusion effects - overall redundancy leads to more error detection but can still induce slight loafing effects - Don't know partner -> less loafing - Know partner -> more loafing - Diffusing responsibility away from self - Free-rider Effect: A loss of motivation in group projects or collective efforts.

Answer 71

Definition: The tendency for people to perform worse on complex or new tasks when in the presence of others. Key Points: -The presence of others causes anxiety and distractions, impairing performance on tasks that require concentration. -Example: Feeling flustered when performing a new sport or solving a difficult math problem.

Answer 72

= An attitude towards a group that devalues its members, either directly or indirectly, often to benefit the self or own group.

Answer 73

attitudes are constructs with three components: 1. Affective (Emotion): First reaction or feeling toward a group. 2. Behavioural (Action): How one behaves toward members of the group. 3. Cognitive (Beliefs): Stereotypes and knowledge about the group.

Answer 74

1. Stereotypes (Cognitive): Beliefs about characteristics of a group. 2. Prejudice (Affective): Emotional response or negative attitude toward a group and it's individual members. 3. Discrimination (Behavioural): Unfair treatment based on group membership. - most negative consequences

Answer 75

We automatically categorise people using a few attributes. - learnt in early life - difficult to change stereotype, more pronnounced when social tensions are high Tajfel & Wilkes (1963): People exaggerated differences between categories when labels were introduced. - estimating line length labelled vs non labelled Accentuation Principle: The exaggeration of perceived differences between groups and similarities within groups once categorization has occurred. Accentuation: Categorisation makes differences between groups seem greater, and similarities within groups seem stronger. 🔁 Replication issues exist – effects stronger with unfamiliar units (e.g., inches vs. cm).

Answer 76

Seeing a relationship that doesn’t exist or exaggerating one that does/ seeing it as stronger than it is. -Driven by cognitive biases – more distinctive outgroup behaviours are more memorable. -Contributes to formation of stereotypes.

Answer 77

The theory that intergroup conflict arises from competition between groups for scarce resources. -Intergroup conflict increases with perceived threats (to group existence, resources, esteem, or group values). e.g migrant workers taking jobs Competing goals between groups= independence and conflict between groups Shared group goals = interdependence and co-operation between groups Conflict can arise without competition – social context matters.

Answer 78

- summer camp for young boys Phase 1 (Attachment): Group bonding. Phase 2 (Conflict): Competition → hostility (flag burning, name-calling). Phase 3 (Reconciliation): Contact hypothesis = ineffective in resolving conflict. (bringing groups together for meal times) Superordinate goals requiring co-operation (e.g., fixing a water tank) = effective in reducing prejudice and reconciling between groups.

Answer 79

The theory that a portion of an individual's identity comes from their membership in social groups. -the values, norms and behaviours we share with our in-group -This theory posits that individuals strive to enhance their self-esteem through positive distinctiveness of their ingroup compared to outgroups. - Explains ingroup favouritism and outgroup bias.

Answer 80

An experimental procedure where individuals are categorized into groups based on random and minimal criteria. Despite the lack of meaningful group identity, individuals often show ingroup favoritism. -creates a situation in which individuals are separated into novel ingroups and outgroups, and these individuals have no previous experience with these groups. study: participants rated paintings by klee and kandinsky - random allocation to groups based on ratings - results -> Preference for ingroup members. Maximum difference strategy > maximum profit or fairness strategy - aims to find out what the minimal conditions for ingroup bias/ outgroup prejudice is

Answer 81

1. Categorisation: Who is “us” vs “them”? - grouping others based on observable characteristics 2. Identification: Which group do I belong to? - where we perceive ourselves to belong to 3. Comparison: Favouring ingroup over outgroup. - comparing ingroup and outgroup

Answer 82

- Ingroup favouritism- The tendency to favor one's own group over other groups. - Intergroup differentiation- the process of highlighting differences between one's own group and other groups, often in a way that favors the ingroup. - Stereotyping- Beliefs about attributes that are thought to be characteristic of members of particular groups. These are the cognitive component of prejudice. - Ethnocentrism- The belief that one's own culture or group is superior to others and using one's own group as a standard of reference.

Answer 83

- the mere fact of being categorised as a group member produces: - peference for ingroups - competitive intergroup behaviour

Answer 84

-A model that proposes that stereotypes about social groups are based on two fundamental dimensions: warmth (communion) and competence (agency). warmth: groups who share our goals are seen as warm and sincere, competing goals are cold and intrustworty competence: capability and assertiveness Groups fall into one of four stereotype quadrants: (2x2 stereotype space) 1. High warmth, high competence (citizens, middle class- pride, admiration) 2. High warmth, low competence(elderly, disabled, children- pity, sympathy) 3. Low warmth, high competence (rich, professional- jealousy) 4. Low warmth, low competence (poor, homeless, immigrants- disgust) EU nations grouped into these clusters based on perceptions. - brackets are emotionals evoked towards these grouos and the tyoe of people most associated with the characteristics)

Answer 85

Cognitive Theories explain automatic thinking, but don’t account for social power. Group-based Theories (e.g., RCT, SIT) offer broader context and social influences, but may overlook individual variation. Consider replication issues, measurement concerns, and contextual factors (e.g., political climate, upbringing).

Answer 86

Stigma = a mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance, quality, or person. Direct effects: discrimination, expectancy confirmation, automatic stereotype activation. Indirect effects: threats to personal and social identity.

Answer 87

Attitudes have 3 components: Cognitive – beliefs/stereotypes Emotional – prejudice/feelings Behavioural – discrimination/actions Can be: -Declarative (conscious) – what we say -Implicit (automatic) – formed via society/media, not personal experience - societal level

Answer 88

1. Public stigma – societal attitudes 2. Self-stigma – internalisation of stigma 3. Structural/Institutional – embedded in policies, systems

Answer 89

Visible identities: race, obesity, gender Concealed identities: illness, beliefs, sexuality Controllable (perceived to be): weight, religion, sexuality

Answer 90

1. stereotype - negative belief about a group (character weakness, danger) 2. prejudice - agreement with belief and/or negative emotional reaction (anger, fear) 3. discrimination - behaviour response to prejudice (avoidance, withhold help) Negative beliefs held by the public about a group (stereotype), agreement with these beliefs and/or negative emotional reactions (prejudice), and discriminatory behaviours resulting from this prejudice (discrimination).

Answer 91

Internalized negative beliefs about oneself (stereotype), agreement with these beliefs and negative emotional reactions like low self-esteem (prejudice), and behaviours resulting from this, such as avoiding opportunities or healthcare (discrimination).

Answer 92

Mental health – stigma leads to: Avoidance of help-seeking Lower self-esteem Worse outcomes Other stigmatized conditions: HIV, Diabetes, Menstruation, Ebola, Non-nuclear families

Answer 93

Unequal treatment Denial of opportunities Withheld help/resources - directly correlates with illness - greater stress correlates with illness - negative health behaviours

Answer 94

Systemic discrimination embedded within societal structures, laws, and policies that disadvantage stigmatized groups (mentioned in the lecture as related to structural discrimination).

Answer 95

- link between self-esteem, stigma and suicidal ideation - self esteem is a powerful protective factor against stigma - stigmatised individuals find ways to protect themselves- externalising stigma rather than internalising it - social support also helps to preserve identitiy (protective factor)

Answer 96

A powerful feeling of discomfort, distress, unease, or generalized dissatisfaction, often associated with feeling othered or a mismatch between one's identity and how one is perceived or treated. eg body, social, mind -often linked to stigma and identity -Triggered by microaggressions ( Subtle, often unintentional, and sometimes unconscious expressions of prejudice that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative slights and insults toward a marginalised person or group) -Can lead to suicidality

Answer 97

The words we use matter: - avoid language that suggests victimhood, suffering, culpability - put the person first - use descriptive language - avoid using defined terms as synomyns for every day behaviour (blind drunk) Say: “person with…”, “living with…” Avoid: “addict”, “victim of…”, “crazy” 🟥 Terms Not to Use: addict, alcoholic, junkie 🟩 Preferred Terms: person with substance use disorder, person with an alcohol use disorder - terms that stigmatize addiction can affect the perspective and behaviour of patients

Answer 98

Explicit Attitudes: Consciously held and declarable beliefs and feelings about a group or oneself. Implicit Attitudes: Unconscious or less consciously accessible beliefs and feelings that can influence behaviour, often shaped by societal influences rather than direct experience.

Answer 99

The tendency to interpret or seek out information that confirms pre-existing stereotypes or expectations about stigmatized individuals.

Answer 100

The unconscious and unintentional triggering of stereotypes when encountering a member of a stereotyped group.

Answer 101

Resources or coping mechanisms (e.g., social support, stigma identification, coping style) that can mitigate the negative impacts of stigma on mental and physical health.

Answer 102

Implicit ≠ Unaware: Implicit attitudes are automatic (system 1 – fast, instinctive, emotional) System 2 (deliberate thinking) can override implicit reactions Reflect base attitudes shaped by experience base attitudes are the biases we hold due to our experience. Behavioural Expression: Behaviour under limited resources or emotional stress may show implicit attitudes

Answer 103

Stigma = Multidimensional: Stereotypes (cognitive) Prejudice (affective) Discrimination (behavioural) Important: -Interventions must target each aspect individually -Reducing one part doesn’t guarantee others will change -different theoretical models for all three -Attitude change may be a path to reduce stigma

Answer 104

-think of stigma in terms of attitude change Attitudes does not always predict behaviour Intention ≠ action -Measurement challenges

Answer 105

Contact Theory (Allport, 1954): A theory proposing that intergroup contact under appropriate conditions can reduce prejudice between groups. - Conditions for success: Equal status between groups (no one dominates the other) Common goals Structural support (authority or custom) intergroup co-operation Challenges: Hard to ensure equal status Usually short-term studies Often based on undergrad samples Long-term change rarely measured (asking people a year later if they still have that attitude) Ages 19–25 are critical for attitude formation (harder to change attitudes in older generation) - all kinds of prejudice, not the same

Answer 106

A cooperative learning technique that reduces prejudice and promotes integration by making students dependent on each other to learn the course material. Structure: Class divided into racially diverse groups Each member has a unique role in solving a problem Groups mix to exchange info Focus shifts from race to talent/skill contribution Impact: Especially helped marginalised students (e.g., Black children) Still used in modern educational settings - improved self-esteem, liking of group members, closed achievement gaps, less competitive environment - positive long term effects on education in general

Answer 107

Perspective Taking: The act of imagining oneself in the place of another person to understand their feelings, thoughts, and experiences. - helps build empathy - can reduce biases related to stereotypes - valuable when there is less likely to be contact - can backfire/ work better when taking perspective of groups with similar values

Answer 108

=Stating an opinion or attitude that is contrary to one's own private belief or attitude. (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959) Method: Participants asked to lie about a boring task and say it was exciting Those paid $1 showed greater attitude change than those paid $20 Explanation: - explained with dissoance Less incentive for lying = more internal dissonance = greater attitude change - more justification for lying with greater reward = low dissonance, no change in attitude Criticism: Relies on abstract values (e.g., "mean" values can’t exist in reality)

Answer 109

Dissonance Information-based change

Answer 110

A state of mental discomfort arising from holding two or more conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes. - performing an action that is inconsistent with one's attitudes When people justify actions (e.g., lying for money): High reward = external justification = no real attitude change Low/no reward = internal discomfort = attitude shifts to resolve tension - behaviours can cause/change attitudes

Answer 111

A communication model that emphasizes the source, message, and audience as key factors in determining the effectiveness of persuasive communication. Key Qs: Who are you talking to? What matters to them? What’s the context? 1. the source- attractiveness, similarities, expertise 2. the message - two-sided argument, manipulation, primacy and regency effects 3. the audience - self- esteem, distraction, age, intelligience

Answer 112

A dual-process theory describing how attitudes can be changed through two different routes: the central route (high elaboration) and the peripheral route (low elaboration). 1. The central route - when motivated and able to, people think carefully and deliberately about the content of a message (high elaboration), attending to its logic and the strength of its arguments. 2. the peripheral route - when we are unwilling or unable to analyse the message content, we pay more attention to cues that are irrelevant to the content or quality of the communication (low elaboration) e.g the attractiveness of the communicator - weaker, shorter-lived attitudes -Persuasion route depends on context and motivation - who we are listening to matters -Stronger change occurs via central route

Answer 113

Use information to engage cognition/dissonance Examples: See Me Scotland Zero-Tolerance Anti-racism at UofG

Answer 114

- which route is a function of contextual factors - attitude change can occur without comprehension via the peripheral route 1. persuasive message - which route depends on speed of speech, mood, self-relevance, individual differences, humour systematic processing- central route -> strong attitudes that predict behaviour heurisitc processing (peripheral route) -> weak attitudes not predictive of behaviour