qualitative analysis and design Flashcards

Question

phases 3 and 4 of thematic analysis

Answer 1

= Generating, developing, reviewing themes - turning codes to potential themes - does this tell us something meaningful? -How does it relate to other potential themes? -How does the theme contribute to the overall story of the data?

Answer 2

= a central organising concept within your data

Answer 3

= defining themes - summarise the essence of the theme - select quotes to illustrate each theme (relate to RQ) - write a narrative about the content and meaning of the data - analysis must answer research question

Answer 4

Developed by Glaser & Strauss (1967). Bottom-up approach → Theory emerges from data (Inductive). No predefined theory guides analysis or preconceptions from the researcher - aims to obtain a theory from the data - codes reflect the literal text and categories are conceptualised

Answer 5

1. Data Collection 2. Coding 3. Theoretical Sampling (Selecting data based on emerging findings) 4. Theory (Cycle repeats until no new insights or information is found = theoretical saturation). - stop interviewing participants as nothing new is coming out of it

Answer 6

David Rennie (1990s) applied Grounded Theory to psychotherapy focusing on the moment by moment experiences of clients in therapy or interviews guided by recordings(paused, replayed) Key Features: - Line-by-line coding (literal text) where data is identified as belonging to an earlier code or assigned a new one - Constant comparative analysis - Hierarchical categorisation of themes/categories - a given unit of text is assigned to as many meanings as the researcher sees in it - end product of the process is a new theory being generated

Answer 7

- client deference = refers to the tendency of psychotherapy clients to defer to the therapist's authority, guidance, or interpretations, rather than asserting their own views or perspectives. - Rennie found this through grounded theory analysis - emerged as a major category - instances of this were coded, constant comparative analysis revealed more cases, and it reached saturation, with the end point being the theory of client deference - highlights the power dynamics in therapy -Shows how clients may suppress their own insights in favour of the therapist’s views. -Calls for therapists to be aware of and minimize unintentional influence over clients.

Answer 8

People are "self-interpreting beings" (Taylor, 1985) → Experiences are uniquely interpreted. Sense-making is central to human experience & action. Dual Aim: 1. Explore lived experiences in depth. 2. Examine how individuals make sense of their experiences. Research is dynamic → The researcher is actively involved in interpreting data.

Answer 9

nomothetic: - attempts to generalise to people - uses objective knowledge - based on numerical data or data that can be categorised idiographic: - focuses on recognition of uniqueness - uses subjective experiences - based on study of uniqueness of individual

Answer 10

- Concerned with how experiences appear to individuals. - Focuses on perceptions & interpretations of objects and events rather than objective facts. Contrasts with: -Scientific/objective descriptions of events. -Pre-existing conceptual frameworks or scientific criteria

Answer 11

Inductive approach → Data-driven, bottom-up, rejects pre-set hypotheses in favour of open ended questions. Idiographic focus → Examines individual lived experiences and how they make sense of them rather than generalising. Agency & Meaning-Making → Individuals actively interpret their world. Researcher Involvement → The researcher’s interpretation is unavoidable and part of the process. (interpreting what they hear)

Answer 12

How do people come to terms with the death of a partner? How does a woman’s identity change during motherhood? What influences the decision to stop therapy?

Answer 13

Open-ended → Aims for rich, detailed descriptions rather than hypothesis testing. Focuses on significant life issues, such as: Identity & sense of self Emotions & life transitions Reflections over time - answers are not generalisable to others who have went through the experience - could not get the outside perspective of someone who has not experienced it

Answer 14

Small (1-6 participants) due to idiographic, case-by-case analysis. - but we don't necessarily need more than one Number of cases depends on: Depth & richness of individual cases.(how willing are they to share in depth) Need for comparison/contrast of cases Practical limitations. (realistic circumstances) commitment of researchers level of analysis

Answer 15

Semi-structured interviews → Guided by a flexible set of questions. Participants must be open & willing to share in-depth reflections. Focus on lived experience while acknowledging external influences on that experience

Answer 16

Personal & Interpretative → Individuals reflect on their experiences and interpret them in interview, and researchers analyse those interpretations. Case-by-case analysis → Each case is studied individually before looking for patterns. Creative Process → Researcher’s role in interpretation is valued. Reveals meaning-making processes → How experiences impact identity.

Answer 17

Step 1: Identifying Themes (First Case Approach) -Read & re-read the transcript multiple times. -in the left margin: Note summaries, associations, interpretations - first impressions of transcript -Right margin: Identify potential themes.- don't need to be definitive yet Step 2: Creating Theme Clusters -Look for connections between potential themes. -Group themes into super-ordinate categories. -Table of master themes → Ensures themes are grounded in participant data. -Use direct participant quotes to support findings and reduce researcher bias.

Answer 18

Focuses on both written & spoken language in social context. - was first introduced by Potter & Wetherell (1987) Social Constructionist Approach → Language constructs reality, not just reflects it. Not just what is said, but: How it is said When it is said how something is communicated Context in which it is said Less concerned with themes → More about how people interact through language.

Answer 19

1. Data Collection Listening & Reading carefully → Observe patterns in communication. 2. Coding Identify repeated words, phrases, and structures. 3. Analysis Focus on how discourse constructs meaning. Examine functional & constructive aspects of speech and writing.

Answer 20

= is a theoretical perspective that suggests that our understanding of reality is shaped through social interactions, language, and culture, rather than existing as an objective truth. - DA is often based on social constructionism, as it studies how language constructs and reinforces social meanings rather than simply describing reality. example: Gender → Instead of being purely biological, ideas about masculinity and femininity are shaped by cultural and social expectations.

Answer 21

Ethics is the philosophical study of what is morally right and wrong and involves systems of accepted beliefs to guide behavior. The British Psychological Society (BPS) provides frameworks for ethical conduct: Code of Ethics and Conduct Code of Human Research Ethics

Answer 22

1. Dealing with Personal Accounts: In qualitative research, the data often come from personal stories and lived experiences, which are sensitive, private, and more intrusive. 2. Confidentiality and Anonymity: Achieving confidentiality and anonymity can be difficult, especially when the data is directly linked to personal narratives. 3. Researcher-Participant Relationship: Qualitative research emphasizes the interaction between researcher and participant. The ethical consideration is the effect of the researcher’s presence and influence, making it challenging to maintain objectivity. 4. Sensitive Data: The data is often sensitive and personal, raising ethical concerns about how it is handled and interpreted.

Answer 23

Respect for Privacy: Researchers must ensure that participants’ privacy is respected. Honest and Open Interactions: Establishing trust and openness with participants is crucial. Avoiding Misrepresentation: Researchers should ensure accurate representation of participants’ views and avoid bias.

Answer 24

Respect: Value the dignity and worth of all persons. Competence: Maintain professional standards and work within own limits - does the researcher have the capabilities and knowledge Responsibility: Protect the welfare of individuals, the public, and the profession (avoid harm). Integrity: Ensure honesty, accuracy, and fairness in research.

Answer 25

Respect for Autonomy, Privacy, and Dignity: Ensure participants’ rights and dignity are upheld. Scientific Integrity: Conduct research with honesty and methodological rigor. Social Responsibility: Consider the broader societal impact of research. Maximizing Benefit and Minimizing Harm: Research should aim to provide value while minimizing potential harm.

Answer 26

Challenges in Evaluation: Since qualitative research involves various methods and perspectives, there isn’t a single framework for evaluating quality. Frameworks and Standards: Various sets of standards have been proposed, but there is debate about the best way to evaluate qualitative research. how do we decide what makes a good study? how do we select appropriate criteria to evaluate? how can we establish guidlelines for evaluating research?

Answer 27

1. sensitivity to context 2. commitment and rigour 3. coherence and transparency 4. impact and importance

Answer 28

sensitivity to context: -Ensuring the research is sensitive to the data, context, and relationships involved. -The researcher should engage with the data deeply, considering how their presence and actions influence the research. -Reflect on the power balance between researcher and participant, especially in sensitive contexts like with children - considering the nature of the researcher's involvement - prolonged engagement with data - considering how the data came into being - being aware of how you as the researcher is perceived by the participants - considering the influence of the researcher on particpants actions

Answer 29

commitment and rigour: -Research should demonstrate commitment to the process, with thoroughness in analysis to uncover new insights. -A rigorous approach to data analysis should allow for in-depth exploration of the research topic. - is there sufficient breadth and depth in order to deliver additional insight into the topic - commitment to the use of a specific technique for analysis - does the analysis and design allow them to achieve answers with enough depth - researcher needs to understand the approach they are taking

Answer 30

coherence and transparency: - Ensure coherence between the research question, methodology, and analysis approach. (consistency) - Researchers should be transparent about methods and analysis, providing sufficient detail so others can assess their work. - Presenting data excerpts allows readers to understand how conclusions were reached.(evidence) - is every aspect of the process discussed - been transparent enough to justify choices that were made

Answer 31

impact and importance: -The research should aim to answer significant questions that build on existing knowledge. -Good qualitative research has an impact on understanding the topic and benefits society by addressing meaningful issues. - asking 'so what?' - why is it of interest, what will be benefit from it - if there is no importance -> waste of participants time if no additional knowledge is gained

Answer 32

Instead of rigid criteria, they suggest guidelines to ensure methodological congruence and reflexive transparency. Researchers should ensure their work aligns with Big Q (qualitative frameworks) rather than trying to fit into predefined quantitative criteria (Small q).

Answer 33

When acting in the role of researcher, we have control over many decisions and can be in quite a powerful position (in comparison to our participants!) Who we are and what values we hold can influence some of the research processes such as: -What methods we may prioritise choosing -how we interpret results, -how well we build rapport (or not with participants), -how likely we are to ask the ‘right’ questions of our participants, -how well we represent what our participants actually said (and meant) To better manage this influence and potential for power imbalances we ideally want to engage in ‘private’ reflexive practices such as journaling/diary keeping. We can even disclose relevant positions we have as part of a positionality statement.

Answer 34

- writing a positionality statement - make your methodological decisions transparent in the write up- even share early analyses with participants - keeping a diary on onenote - speaking to your team of researchers/supervisor about your reflections/ decision making

Answer 35

- interviews/ case study - focus groups - free open texts - printed media - internet social networks - diaries - visual methods - archive open data

Answer 36

- change names - judge what detail to include - data management practises - member validation - is a technique where researchers share their data, analyses, and interpretations with participants to ensure the accuracy and credibility of the findings. - open science tensions

Answer 37

- calla for the routine preparation of and subsequent sharing of research data in publicly available places - can include UK data service, UK data archive positives: - transparency, efficient, sustainable, prevents replication or over burdening vulnerbale groups negatives: - issues of confidentiality, informed consent, preparing data, limit on building any relationship with participants, suitability of data to research question, context? - primary data colection does not need to be the default, we can consider what exisiting data could be used and the limits/constraints from these data sources

Answer 38

- social desirability - close proximity- ethical sensitivity, trigger issues - importance of interviewer not to lead, deductive avoidance - emotionally taxing topics -> do not avoid distress or unease - time consuming

Answer 39

- rationale for qualitative focus - research question(s) - epistemological alignment - showcasing your quotes (evidence) - being upfront about the limitations of your research

Answer 40

- weaving together the analytic narrative and data extracts, contextualising the analysis in relation to existing literature

Answer 41

data in the writing up stage would consist of: - list of final themes - participant quotes to support themes - analysts narrative to enable themes and quotes to be integrated in a coherent, effective, accessible and authentic way (what do the themes imply, interpreting the individuals stories)

Answer 42

Essentialist Paradigm Assumes that reality is objective and exists independently of human perception. Believes that categories, identities, and experiences have inherent, fixed meanings. Views language as a neutral tool for describing reality. Aims to uncover underlying truths that are stable and universal. Typically aligns with positivist or realist traditions in research. If studying gender, an essentialist approach might assume that men and women have inherent psychological and biological differences that explain their behavior. Constructionist Paradigm Assumes that reality is socially constructed through human interactions and cultural norms. Believes that meaning and knowledge are shaped by social, historical, and political contexts. Views language as active and shaping reality, not just describing it. Rejects the idea of fixed truths, emphasizing fluidity, subjectivity, and context. Often aligns with interpretivist, critical, or postmodernist traditions in research. A constructionist study on gender would focus on how societal norms and discourse shape gender roles, rather than assuming inherent biological differences.

Answer 43

semantic = explicit level, close description basedon what participant said, data driven, realist - RQs focus on the what latent = pushes more towards interpretive, constructionist to explore underlying meaning, language, ideas, researcher driven RQs focus on the how

Answer 44

1. introduce each theme, describe what each one represents 2. in depth evidence of themes - quality of quotes over quantitiy 3. explain why quotes are relevant, importsnt, meaningful 4. mention pseudonymn names when stating quotes 5. notice where you can extend into latent analysis " it can be inferred that"