Social Psychology #1 Flashcards

Question

Self-observation | Am I an Environmentalist? Study (Chaiken & Baldwin, 1981)

Answer 1

Self-Perception Theory: When internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain insight by observing their own behavior  Am I an Environmentalist? Study (Chaiken & Baldwin, 1981)  Reported strength of environmental attitudes  Later reminded of either: Their environmentally unfriendly behaviors, or Their environmentally friendly behaviors  DV: Self-Identification as environmentalists / conservationists  Results?  Salient behaviors affected self-concept; (only when initial attitudes were weak)

Answer 2

 Intrinsic Motivation: Originates from within a person Mastery  Extrinsic Motivation: Originates from outside the person Money Marker Study • IV: No reward/Expected reward/Unexpected reward • DV: time playing with markers a week later No reward same play time as unexpected reward, both more than expected reward Overjustification effect: we think external reward rather than internal is why we do things Overlays extrinsic motivation onto the intrinsic Impedes natural prospecsity to learn

Answer 3

Influences of Other People on the Self  Looking Glass Study (Miller et al., 1975)  5th Graders either told by teacher: that they were ecologically minded and very clean That they should be ecologically minded and clean Not given any message ARE, SHOULD BE, control  Assessed ecological/cleanliness behavior at a later time  Conclusion: self-fulfilling prophecy We do more of what people think we are good at and less of what people think we are not good at

Answer 4

Evidence for Two-Factor Theory of Emotion Interpretation of emotion influences emotion  Anger/Euphoria Study (Schachter & Singer, 1962) ◦ Injected participants w/ epinephrine (induces arousal)  IV1: Informed or Not Informed about effects of injection  IV2: Either observed a ‘confederate’ behave in an angry or euphoric way ◦ DV: Assessed anger and euphoria (behavioral & self-report) Euphoric Condition: Informed slightly less than uninformed Angry condition: Informed much less than uninformed, even below 0

Answer 5

Self-Referent Effect Self-Coherence: Memory shapes self-concept & Self-concept shapes memory Altering working self-concept → alters self-relevant memories Best memory: Self-reference>Semantic>Acoustic>Physical Making up stories that are personally relevant is the best memory tool

Answer 6

How often are you thinking about yourself(self-reflective)? About 8% of people explicitly think about themselves When do we become objects of our own attention? How does increased self-awareness make you feel? Causes and Effects of Self-Awareness Self-focusing persons/situations → Self-awareness → Accessibility of self-discrepancies The difference between perceived self and ideal self

Answer 7

Does a mirror increase, decrease or have no impact on alcohol consumption?  →Increased drinking among those with high external locus of control Amend discrepancy  →Decreased drinking among those with high internal locus of control “I have often found that what is going to happen will happen” Don't think they can amend, escape discrepancy through alcohol Netflix, TV, YTB all works the same way, making us lose self-awareness External locus of control “Trusting to fate has never turned out as well for me as making a decision to take a definite course of action” Internal locus of control Coping with Discomfort  1) “Shape up” by behaving in ways that reduce self-discrepancies  2) “Ship out” by withdrawing from self-awareness Discrepancies → Expectation for discrepancy reduction High → Match behavior to standards Low → Withdraw from self-awareness

Answer 8

 The process by which people control their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors in order to achieve a personal or social goal  Self-control as limited inner resource that can be temporarily depleted  Exerting self-control can reduced subsequent control (Self-regulation fatigue)  Ironic Mental Processes  E.g. White bear study

Answer 9

Affective component of self; An overall emotional evaluation of one’s own worth or value Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES; Rosenberg, 1965) E.g., “I feel that I have a number of good qualities.” “I feel I do not have much to be proud of.” (R) “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself”

Answer 10

Positive self-views associated with: Less depression (Tennen & Affleck, 1993) Less neuroticism (Robins, et al., 2001) Greater persistence at difficult tasks (Shrauger & Rosenberg, 1970) Higher levels of life satisfaction (Diener, 1984) Positive self-views associated with: Prejudice (Crocker, et al., 1987) Aggression and Violence (Baumeister et al., 1996) Denial of responsibility for failure (Fitch, 1970) Bullies and prison population often have high Rosenberg scores

Answer 11

Secure/Stable High Self-Esteem Conscious self-evaluations reflect genuine positive self-regard Fragile/Defensive/Unstable High Self-Esteem Positive self-views at a conscious level but deep-seated selfdoubts and insecurities at less conscious levels How can we assess whether an individual’s high self-esteem is secure or fragile?

Answer 12

Self-evaluations that occur outside of awareness Independent of explicit self-esteem—the conscious and deliberately reasoned evaluations of self Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald et al., 1998) Speed of associating negative and positive words w/ self Name-Letter Evaluation Task (Bosson et al., 2000) Assesses Implicit Egotism

Answer 13

Measure Explicit SE (with Rosenberg SES) Measure Implicit SE (with IAT) Narcissistic Personality Inventory E.g., “I like to look at myself in the mirror”; “I like having authority over other people” Self-Esteem and Hostility (Kernis, 2003) High Explicit/Low Implicit SE = greater hostility to negative performance feedback, more narcissistic

Answer 14

Self-esteem is an interpersonal monitor Gauges acceptance versus rejected by others (Leary & Downs, 1995) Driven by need to connect w/ and gain approval of others Evolutionary adaptation: “the sociometer evokes emotional distress as an alarm signal and motivates behaviors to gain, maintain, and restore relational appreciation” (Leary & Baumeister, 2000) People rate themselves higher when they are told people are willing to hang out with them

Answer 15

Desire for self-preservation + Awareness of mortality → Potential Terror Terror is controlled by: 1. Immersion in a cultural worldview: A shared conception of reality that imbues life with meaning, order, and permanence; the promise of safety and death transcendence to those who meet prescribed standards of value. 2. Maintenance of self-esteem: The belief that one is living up to those standards of value.

Answer 16

…when people are reminded of death (mortality salience [MS]), they will rely on terror management (defense) mechanisms (e.g., Self esteem) to assuage potential anxiety Self-esteem striving: Attempts to bolster positive selfperceptions MS → increased tendency to support the legitimacy of profusely positive feedback about one’s personality (Dechesne et al., 2000) Boosting positive feedback attenuates defensive response to MS (Harmon-Jones et al., 1997)

Answer 17

Self-esteem not a need “unto itself” – drive for SE serves other functions Sociometer: to maintain social ties & inclusion TMT: to protect against underlying existential concerns Integration of TMT and Sociometer Perspectives? Both imply SE is about upholding standards set by others Different emphasis on Social vs. Psychological functions

Answer 18

Positive illusions: self-perceptions that are falsely positive and exaggerated in respect to their actual abilities See themselves as more positive than is true E.g., better-than-average effect Exaggerated beliefs about ability to control events E.g., superstitions Unrealistically optimistic about the future

Answer 19

Participants solicited to buy a lottery ticket for $1 Given ticket (no choice condition) Or allowed to choose their ticket (choice condition) DV: Cost to sell their ticket to someone else Results: Ps given choice less willing to sell ticket No choice condition: Average resale price $1.96 Choice condition: Average resale price: $8.67 Superstition works the same way: we think we have control

Answer 20

Davis et al. (2006) Participants playing craps in Reno Casino Placed bets on their own dice rolls Or another person's dice rolls DV: Bet Size and riskiness Results: Placed higher and risky bets on their own dice rolls Dixon (2000): Similar findings with Roulette in lab setting

Answer 21

E.g., Drinking heavily the night before an exam Performance enhancing/inhibiting study (Jones & Berglas, 1978) Completed Anagrams (Solvable or Unsolvable) Received positive feedback Chose to take performance “enhancing” or “inhibiting” drug before taking another test Results: Unsolvable group = 70% chose performance inhibiting drug Solvable group = 13% chose performance inhibiting drug

Answer 22

Basking in Reflective Glory (BIRGing): Associating oneself with successful others such that another’s success becomes one’s own Cutting off Reflected Failure (CORFing): Dissociating oneself from the failure of others. BIRGing/CORFing Study (Cialdini et al. 1976) Greater tendency to wear school-identifying apparel after school's football team had been victorious

Answer 23

A stable self-concepts plays an important role in understanding the world  Self-Verification Theory: Motivated to maintain firmly held beliefs and feelings about themselves  Actively seek self-verifying information  Can conflict with Self-enhancement motive  82% of clinically depressed adults chose unfavorable over favorable feedback (Giesler et al. 1996) Participants are told that they will take a short writing test  IV1: Expected Performance  Expected to succeed Or Expected to fail  IV2: Type of Feedback  Positive Feedback Or Negative Feedback  DV: Desire to see Feedback Self-enhancement: Both high desire for positive feedback, low for negative feedback Self-verification: Expected Failure, low for positive, high for negative Expected Success, high positive, low negative

Answer 24

People frequently wish to have accurate self-knowledge  Self-Assessment Perspective: Motivated to obtain an objective picture of the self in order to accurately gauge one’s abilities  Essential to achieving goals Self-Enhancement v. Self-Assessment Participants are told that they will take a short writing test  IV1: Expected Performance  Expected to succeed Or Expected to fail  DV1: Desire to see Feedback (0 = not at all, 7 = very much) Self-enhancement: Expected Failure, low desire to see feedback Expected Success, high desire to see feedback Self-assessment: Both high desire to see feedback

Answer 25

Definition of self Free from social context. Tied to social context. Structure of self Stable, bounded, unitary. Variable, flexible, fluid. Primary tasks Uniqueness, expression of internal attributes, promotion of personal goals. Fitting in, self-restraint, maintain harmony. Role of others Self-evaluation (i.e., social comparison). Self-definition.

Answer 26

``` Quasi-IV: Cultural variable; women from…  US sample  Japanese sample  IV: Situation/Social Context  Alone  Paired w/ peer  Paired with high status partner (faculty member)  Large peer group Assessed Working Self-Concept ```  Twenty Statements Test (TST) ``` Response Categories: E.g…  Pure psychological traits/attributes  Goals  Activities  Relationships  Social memberships ``` ``` Valence  Positive vs. Negative descriptors Americans (vs. Japanese)  More abstract internal attributes  More self-descriptions overall  More positive self-statements ``` ``` Japanese (vs. Americans)  More activities and situational referents  More categories to describe self  More negative self-statements Culture × Context Interaction ```  Americans revealed few context effects  Equally positive across conditions  Japanese revealed more context effects  Fewer psychological attributes in peer condition  More ability statements in solitary condition  More positive statements in solitary condition Conclusions:  Japanese selves realized in specific contexts  Self contingent on perceived demands of interaction partner  Self-criticism promotes adhering to standards of social context  American selves = abstract, stable, & more context-independent  “Oneself as unique, independent, self-directed, and in a positive light”  Continuously present

Answer 27

Pen Study (Kim & Markus, 1999)  Ps recruited at the San Francisco Airport  Survey included country of origin  offered pen as gift for completing survey  Pens presented in a group of five, one different from the rest  Which pen did participants choose? European American: 80 East Asian: 30

Answer 28

Gardner et al. (1999) Experiment 1 IV: Prime (Independent or interdependent self-construal) Story about General choosing warrior to bring to the king Chose best individual & considered benefits to himself (Independent condition) Chose family member & considered benefits to his family (Interdependent condition) Word Search Task; Read a story & circled all personal pronouns Singular pronouns (e.g. I, mine) (Independent Condition) Plural pronouns (e.g., we, ours) (Interdependent Condition) DVs: Values inventory; “guiding principle in their lives” Individualistic subset: Freedom, independence, choosing one’s own goals, living an exciting life, living a varied life Collectivist subset: Belongingness, friendship, family safety, national security, respect for elders Twenty Statements Task; Measure of Self-Construal Looked at proportion of: Personal attributes (Independent self-construal) Relational & Social identifiers (Interdependent selfconstrual)  IND prime → endorsement of Individualistic (vs. collectivistic) values Individualist value greater than collectivist  INT prime → endorsement of Collectivistic (vs individualistic) values Collectivist values greater than individualist value

Answer 29

Theory in the 90s: Members of Western culture (Idiocentrics): * have inflated views of the self * manifest the self-serving bias * have unrealistically optimistic beliefs Members of Eastern culture (Allocentrics): * do not have inflated self-views * do not manifest the self-serving bias * do not have unrealistically optimistic beliefs * self-efface Culture Perspective Need for Self-Enhancement: Not Universal “the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese…” “the need for self-regard must be culturally variant …” “the need for self-regard … is not universal, but rather rooted in significant aspects of North American culture” Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1998, Psychological Review, p. 766

Answer 30

``` ## Counter-Evidence for Culture Perspective: Easterners ``` Prefer own name letters and birthday dates Score equally high with westerners on self-esteem IAT Conclusions? Why do Japanese not show self-enhancement on explicit measures? Case for Universal Self-Enhancement Theory: Motivation for self-enhancement is universal, but occurs according to culturally specific standards of value Hypotheses: * Allocentrics (Japanese) will self-enhance on collectivistic attributes. * Idiocentrics (Americans) will self-enhance on individualistic attributes * Participants - 40 American students - 40 Japanese students Had been away from Japan 2-22 month “How well does each trait describe you relative to the typical group member?” -5 = much worse than the typical group member 0 = as well as the typical group member +5 = much better than the typical group member Americans enhance on individual much more than collective Japanese enhance on collective much more than individual

Answer 31

They offer conflicting explanations and provide no way to rest it, and they are often over simplified

Answer 32

􏰓 Theories in social psychology attempt to explain and predict social psychological phenomena. The best theories are precise, explain all the relevant information, and generate research that can support or disconfirm them. They should be revised and improved as a result of the research they inspire.

Answer 33

- 􏰓 Experimental findings have internal validity to the extent that changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to the independent variables. - 􏰓 A confound is a serious problem to internal validity, as it means that some other factor varied along with the independent vari- able and therefore makes it impossible to know if the indepen- dent variable caused the effect on the dependent variable. - 􏰓 Control groups strengthen internal validity; experimenter expectancy effects weaken it. - 􏰓 Research results have external validity to the extent that they can be generalized to other people and other situations.

Answer 34

􏰓 Mundane realism is the extent to which the research setting seems similar to real-world situations. 􏰓 Experimental realism is the extent to which the participants experience the experimental setting and procedures as real and involving. 􏰓 Deception is sometimes used to increase experimental realism. 􏰓 Confederates act as though they are participants in an experiment but actually work for the experimenter.

Answer 35

􏰓 The self-concept is the sum total of a person’s beliefs about his or her own attributes. It is the cognitive component of the self.

Answer 36

- 􏰓 Human beings and apes are the only animals to recognize their mirror-image reflections as their own. - 􏰓 Cooley’s “looking-glass” self suggests that social factors are a necessary second step.

Answer 37

**The Self-Awareness “Trap”** 􏰓 In general, people spend little time actually thinking about themselves. - 􏰓 But certain situations (mirrors, cameras, audiences) increase self-awareness, and certain people are generally more self- conscious than others. - 􏰓 Self-awareness forces us to notice self-discrepancies and can produce a temporary reduction in self-esteem. - 􏰓 To cope, we either adjust our behavior to meet our standards or withdraw from the self-focusing situation. - 􏰓 Heavy drinking can be viewed as a means of escaping from self-awareness. 􏰓 For people of faith, thinking about God can have the same effects as other triggers of self-awareness.

Answer 38

􏰓 People protect their self-esteem in four major ways: through self-serving cognitions, such as taking credit for success and denying the blame for failure; self-handicapping, in order to excuse anticipated failure; basking in reflected glory, which boosts their self-esteem through associations with successful others; and downward social comparisons to others who are less well off.

Answer 39

􏰓 We care deeply about what others think of us and often believe that the social spotlight shines more brightly on us than it really does.

Answer 40

**Self-Verification** 􏰓 Apart from the desire to be seen in a positive light, people seek self-verification, a process by which we try to get others to per- ceive us “accurately,” as we see ourselves. 􏰓 Research shows that self-verification motives often trump the desire to be seen in a positive light.

Answer 41

􏰓 Individuals differ in their tendency to regulate their behavior to meet the demands of social situations. 􏰓 High self-monitors modify their behavior, as appropriate, from one situation to the next. 􏰓 Low self-monitors express themselves in a more consistent manner, exhibiting at all times what they see as their true self.