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Social psychology > social psych part 1 and part 3 material > Flashcards

social psych part 1 and part 3 material Flashcards

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1
Q

conformity

A

the tendency to change one’s behaviour or beliefs in response to some real or imagined pressure from others

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2
Q

Asch’s conformity experiment

A

line experiment

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3
Q

results of Asch’s line experiment

A

76% went along, at least once, with the incorrect answer

37% went along ALL the time

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4
Q

factors that influence conformity in Asch’s experiment (3)

A

(1) group size (level out at 3-4 stooges), (2) unanimity and (3) writing down answers

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5
Q

other factors that influence conformity (4)

A

(1) attractiveness of group, (2) age, (3) gender and (4) culture

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6
Q

social norms

A

unspoken, but shared rules aobut common everyday behaviours

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7
Q

types of social norms (2)

A

(1) descriptive and (2) injunctive

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8
Q

descriptive norms

A

how most people typically behave in a given situation (what is typically done)

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9
Q

injunctive norms

A

what behaviour other people typically approve or disapprove of in a given situations (supposed to do)

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10
Q

sources of conformity (2)

A

(1) normative social influence and (2) informational social influence

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11
Q

normative social influence

A

going along to get along

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12
Q

normative social influence often results in ….

A

public conformity

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13
Q

public conformity

A

publically agreeing with others, without necessarily believing them

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14
Q

private acceptance (private conformity)

A

agreeing with others and genuinely believing them to be right

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15
Q

informational social influence

A

going along to be right (ie. viewing the behaviour of others as informative about what is correct)

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16
Q

minority influence

A

the process whereby a small number of people can come to influence the majority group

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17
Q

the key to minority influence is …

A

consistency

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18
Q

majorities often cause ___ conformity because of ___ social influence

A

public; normative

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19
Q

minorities often cause ____ ____ because of ____ social influence

A

private acceptance; informational

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20
Q

agression

A

any form of behaviour intended to harm another livign being who does not want to be harmed

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21
Q

types of aggression (4)

A

(1) direct and (2) indirect; (3) hostile and (4) instrumental

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22
Q

direct aggression

A

behaivours aimed at huring someone to his or her face

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23
Q

indirect aggression

A

attempts to hurt another perso without face-to-face conflict

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24
Q

hostile aggression (emotional/reactive aggression)

A

aggressive acts that are often impulsive or committed “in the heat of the moment” rather than planned or premeditated

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25
Q

instrumental aggression (proactive aggression)

A

hurting others as a means to some goal other than cuasing or inflicting pain

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26
Q

average physical aggression

A 
male = 9.0
female = 6.9
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27
Q

average verbal aggression

A

male = 11.2

female 10.5

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28
Q

main causes of aggression (3)

A

(1) innate or unlearned, (2) response to situational or external causes and (3) learned behaviour

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29
Q

names associated with agression as innate (2)

A

(1) Freud and (2) Lorenz

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30
Q

Freud believed humans were born with a powerful __ instinct called ___, which was an energy that lead to aggressive and self-destructive behaviour toward the self

A

death; thanatos

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31
Q

according to Freud, we act aggressively to ___ the built up energy from thanatos

A

release

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32
Q

Lorenz believed people had evolved an ___ to be aggressive ( “____ ___”)

A

instinct; fighting instinct

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33
Q

is aggression an instinct? (based on contemporary understanding)

A

NO… ignores powerful role that learning plays in behaviour

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34
Q

link between testosterone (hormone) and aggression

A

positive correlation between aggression and testosterone

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35
Q

link between serotonin (neurotransmitter) and aggression

A

low levels of serotonin are assoicated with a lock of impulse control and aggressive tendencies

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36
Q

role of hypothalamus in aggression

A

controls emotional activity; when electrically stimulated in cats, aggressive behaviour can be induced

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37
Q

case study: Charles Whitman

A

university shooter who killed 14 people; post-mortem exam showed malignant brain tumor in the limbic system of his brain (including hypothalamus) which may have played a role in the shootings

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38
Q

role of frontal lobes in aggression

A

thosw who experience frontal lobe injuries tend to show more aggressive and violent tendencies

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39
Q

frustration-aggression hypothesis

A

frustration ALWAYS leads to aggression and ALL aggression is caused by frustration

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40
Q

frustration

A

feeling arrising when we are prevented from obtaining something we want

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41
Q

displaced aggression (“kicking the dog” effect)

A

people’s tendencyt o aggress against others when they cannot aggress against the source of the frustration

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42
Q

problem witht he frustration-aggression hypothesis

A

over-states link between frustration and aggression

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43
Q

what is the re-formulated frustration-aggression hypothesis called?

A

cognitive-neoassociation theory of aggression (aka negative affect theory)

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44
Q

cognitive-neoassociationist theory of aggression

A

negative affect automatically activates thoughts and feelings associated with aggression and these thoughts and feelings will be expressed as either aggression or flight, after an appraisal of the situation

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45
Q

aggressive cues

A

learned stimuli that are associated with aggressive responses

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46
Q

weapons effect

A

the mere presence of a weapon can increase the likelihood of aggression occurring in response to negative feelings

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47
Q

how is aggression learned? (2)

A

(1) direct reinforcement and (2) observational learning

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48
Q

Bandura’s learned aggression experiement

A

Bobo doll

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49
Q

link between media violence and aggression

A

positive correlation (in children)

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50
Q

ways in which we study media violence and aggression (2)

A

(1) before-and-after experiements and (2) correlational studies

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51
Q

criticism of before-and-after experiments (3)

A

(1) lack external validity, (2) demand characteristics and (3) lack of delay

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52
Q

criticism of correlational studies (3)

A

(1) not cause-and-effect, (2) directionality problem and (3) third variable problem

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53
Q

explanations for the rleationship between media violence and aggression (3)

A

(1) social leanring theory (Bandura), (2) normative view and (3) desensitization

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54
Q

personality factos associated with higher aggression (3)

A

(1) hostile attributional bias, (2) narcissism and (3) type A behaivour pattern

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55
Q

hostile attributional bias

A

tendency to interpret ambiguous behaviour in terms of hostility and aggression

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56
Q

narcissim

A

thinking you are better than everybody, seeking admiration, entitlement and an unrealistically high, but FRAGILE, self-esteem (when self-esteem is challenged they often react aggressively)

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57
Q

childhood gender differences in aggression

A

western countries, boys tend to fight physically more than girls and to fantasize more about aggressive themes

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58
Q

adult gender differences in aggression

A

males more likely to engage in physical aggression (violent crimes, murder) and females to engage in indirect aggression

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59
Q

culture of honour

A

a society in which people, especially males, are highly protective of their reputation and very sensitive and reactive to personal insults, humiliation and other threats to their honour

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60
Q

how to reduce aggression (6)

A

(1) physical punishment (2) skills training, (3) modeling non-aggressive behaviour, (4) incompatible response technique, (5) apology and (6) catharsis

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61
Q

link between physicla punishment in childhood and aggression

A

more physical punishment linked to highly aggressive children (modeling)

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62
Q

types of skills training (3)

A

(1) social skills training, (2) anger management training and (3) empathy (perspective) training

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63
Q

incompatible response technique

A

exposing people to stimuli that cause an emotional response that is incompatible with feelings of anger and aggression

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64
Q

does catharis of aggresion work?

A

study after study has shownt hat participating in or watchign aggressive activities tends to increase aggression… so…

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65
Q

group

A

a collection of people who perceive themselves to be bonded together in a coherent unit to some degree

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66
Q

common-bond groups (face-to-face)

A

individual group members are bonded/ attached to each other (typically involved regular fact-to-face interaction)

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67
Q

common-identiy groups (social categories

A

group members are linked together via a category as a whole rather than to other members

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68
Q

entitativity

A

the extent to which a group is perceived as being a distinct (or coherent) entity (or unit) rahter than simply a mere collection of individuals

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69
Q

groups high in entitativity tend to have the following characteristics (4)

A

(1) frequent interactions, (2) perceived as important to its members, (3) share common goals/ purpose and (4) members see themselves as similar to one antoher in important ways

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70
Q

___ groups show the lowest entitativity

A

transitory

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71
Q

key components present in groups (4)

A

(1) status, (2) roles, (3) norms and (4) cohesiveness

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72
Q

benefits of group membership (6)

A

(1) sense of belonging, (2) social rewards, (3) help us reach our goals, (4) help us accomplish social change, (5) meet our need for security and (6) social identity

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73
Q

costs of getting accepted into a group (3)

A

(1) restrictions of personal freedom, (2) demands on your time and resources and (3) groups can endorse a policy/ position you disagree with

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74
Q

Triplett experiment

A

kids winding fishing line onto a reel in pairs vs alone

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75
Q

results of the Triplett experiment

A

wound more when in pairs versus when alone, even though it wasn’t a competition

76
Q

social facilitation

A

people perform better on a task in the presence of others (co-actors or a passive audience) than when they are performing the same task alone

77
Q

social inhibition

A

people perform worse on a task in teh presence of others than when they are performing the same task alone

78
Q

drive theory of social facilitation (mere presence explanation)

A

the mere presence of other people increases our physiological arousal; if we are performing a well-learned/ easy task, higher levels of arousal will lead to facilitation; high arousal inhibits performance on new or difficult tasks

79
Q

evaluation apprehension theory

A

we are concerned about being evaluate by others which increases our physiological arousal; for well-learned/ easy tasks this improves performance and for difficult/new tasks it inhibits it

80
Q

distraction-conflict theory

A

the presence of other people is distracting which lead to conflict that increases our physiological arousal; for well-learned/ easy tasks this improves performance and for difficult/new tasks it inhibits it

81
Q

additive tasks

A

all group members perform the same task and group performance is the sum of the efforts of the individual members (eg. tug of war)

82
Q

social loafing

A

reductions in effort when individuals work collectively in a group compared to when they work individually

83
Q

free-rider effect

A

the tendency to contribute less to a collective task when one believes that other group members will make up for one’s lack of effort

84
Q

sucker effect

A

tendency to contribute less to a collective task when one believes that other group members are not going to be contributing their fair share

85
Q

reducing social loafing (5)

A

(1) make individual work identifiable and assessable, (2) make the task meaningful, (3) don’t work with strangers, (4) work with females and (5) work with some from a collectivistic culture

86
Q

deindividuation

A

a reduced sense of individual identity accompanied by diminished self-regulation that comes over people when they are in a large group

87
Q

factors that contirbute to deindividuation (4)

A

(1) energizing effect of others, (2) stimulus overload, (3) anonymity and (4) diffusion of responsibility

88
Q

the opposite of deindividuation is ___-____

A

self-awareness

89
Q

group polarization

A

tendency for group decisions to be more extreme than those made by individuals

90
Q

causes of group polarization (2)

A

(1) persuasive arguments explanation and (2) social comparison explanation

91
Q

group think

A

a decision-making style that is characterized by an excessive tendency among group members to maintain cohesion and seek unanimity or agreement, as opposed to making the best possible decision

92
Q

antecedent/ precursors of groupthing (3)

A

(1) high cohesiveness, (2) isolation from outside influences and (3) strong directive leader

93
Q

symptoms of groupthink (7)

A

(1) illusion of invulnerability, (2) illusion of morality, (3) stereotyped view of the enemy, (4) pressure on dissenters to conform, (5) self-censorship of misgivings, (6) illusion of unanimity and (7) mindguards

94
Q

preventing group think (6)

A

(1) encourage voicing of objections, (2) seek input from outside experts, (3) appoint a devil’s advocate, (4) break into smaller subgroups, (5) have group leader initially remain impartial and (6) hold a second chance meeting a week or so later

95
Q

social psychology

A

scientific study of how individual’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours are influenced by the real/ imagined presence of other people

96
Q

drawbacks to common sense ideas (4)

A

(1) often contradictory, (2) fail to answer “why”, (3) not put to formal tests and (4) protected by hindsight bias

97
Q

codes of ethical research conduct (4)

A

(1) minimize harm, (2) maintain confidentiality, (3) informed consent and (4) debriefing

98
Q

social perception

A

how we form impressions of, and make inferences about, other people

99
Q

non-verbal communication

A

intentional/ unintentional communication without words

100
Q

micro-unit

A

smaller aspect of face (eg. eyebrow)

101
Q

eyebrow flashing

A

quick up/down movement of eyebrows that humans and apes do when encountering a familiar person; innate recognition signal

102
Q

fully raised eyebrows signify…

A

astonishment/ disbelief

103
Q

half raised eyebrows signify…

A

mild surprise/ skepticism

104
Q

half lowered eyebrows signify…

A

concern/ puzzlement

105
Q

fully lowered eyebrows signify…

A

anger

106
Q

basic emotions (6)

A

(1) happiness, (2) surprise, (3) fear, (4) sadness, (5) anger and (6) disgust

107
Q

we recognize ___ (neg/pos) facial expressions faster

A

negative

108
Q

display rules

A

cultural expectations about how, when and where emotions should be expressed

109
Q

functions of eye contact in communication (4)

A

(1) regulate information flow in conversation, (2) gives feedback to speaker, (3) express emotions and (4) social control

110
Q

emblems

A

gestures with a well-understood definition within a given culture

111
Q

illustrators

A

gestures that accompany speech and demonstrate what is being said in a different form

112
Q

categories of touch (7)

A

(1) positive affect, (2) playful, (3) control, (4) ritualistic and (5) task-related; + (6) negative affect and (7) aggressive

113
Q

non-verbal leakage

A

true feelings leaking, even when they are trying to be concealed

114
Q

paralanguage (paralinguistic cues)

A

how something is said

115
Q

microexpression

A

a fleeting facial expression of concealed emotion, lasts less than 1/4 of a second

116
Q

people __ more frequently when lying

A

blink

117
Q

least relaible lie detector: ?

A

facial expression

118
Q

people have __ OR __ amount of eye contact when lying

A

high; low

119
Q

inter-channel discrepancy

A

inconsistency between non-verbal cues from differenct channels (eg. positive gaze but leaning away)

120
Q

our deception detection is ___

A

poor

121
Q

detection of deception (4)

A

(1) paralanguage, (2) microexpression, (3) eye contact and (4) inter-channel discrepancy

122
Q

attribution

A

attempts to understand causes and perceived causes of other people’s behaviour

123
Q

Heider’s categories of attribution (2)

A

(1) internal (dispositional) and (2) external (situational)

124
Q

Kelley’s covariation theory

A

we focus on three sources of info to decide external versus internal attribution

(1) consensus info
(2) distinctiveness info
(3) consistency info

125
Q

according to Kelley’s covariation theory, internal attributions are more likely to be made when…

A

consensus and distinctiveness are low and consistency is high

126
Q

according to Kelley’s covariation theory, external attributions are more likely to be made when…

A

consensus, distinctiveness and consistnecy are ALL high

127
Q

theory of correspondent inference

A

prefer internal attributions for others; especially if it is freely chosen, socially undesirable or produces non-common effect

128
Q

attribution errors (4)

A

(1) fundamental attribution error (correspondence error), (2) actor-observer effect, (3) self-serving bias and (4) blame the victim

129
Q

fundamental attribution error (correspondence error)

A

tnedency to overestimate role of internal factors in other people’s behavior

130
Q

actor-observer effect

A

tendency to attribute their own behaviour to external causes but the behaivour of others mainly to internal causes

131
Q

explanations for actor-observer effect (2)

A

(1) perceptual salience and (2) actors ahve more info about self than observers do

132
Q

self-serving bias

A

tendency for people to take more responsibility for their successes than for their failures

133
Q

explanations for self-serving bias (3)

A

(1) self-presentation strategy, (2) maintain/enhance self-esteem and (3) we expect to succeed

134
Q

explanations for “blaming the victim” (2)

A

(1) just-world phenomenon and (2) defensive attribution

135
Q

just-world phenomenon

A

belief that individuals get what they deserve and deserve what they get

136
Q

impression formation

A

process of piecing information together about a person to form an overall impression

137
Q

limitation of attributional theories

A

assumes that making causal inferences is part of everyday life

138
Q

we are more likely to ask “why” questions when: (2)

A

(!) something unusual, negative or unexpected happens or (2) an event is personally very relevant

139
Q

impression management

A

our efforts to produce a favorable first impression on other people

140
Q

social cognition

A

how we select, interpret, analyze, remember and use ifnormation to make judgements and decisions about the world in which we live

141
Q

naive scientists

A

attempt to rationally and lgoically process information about the social world

142
Q

cognitive misers

A

lazy thinkers; look for mental short cuts when processing social information

143
Q

motivated tactician model

A

people are flexible thinkers who caa choose among different cognitive strategies based on current goals, motivations and needs

144
Q

schema

A

a hypothetical mental structure that contains our knowledge about some object, event, place or person; this info is stored in our memory

145
Q

priming

A

occurs when a recent experiences makes a schema more active/accessible than it would be otherwise

146
Q

types of schemas (3)

A

(1) person, (2) role and (3) event (aka scripts)

147
Q

perseverance effect

A

tendency for shcemas to persist despite contradictory info

148
Q

heuristic

A

mental shortcuts in social cognition that allow people to make judgements and decisions more quickly (with little thought)

149
Q

representative heuristic

A

making judgements based on how similar someone/something is to the typical case

150
Q

availability heuristic

A

tendency to judge the frequency of soemthing by how quickly relevant examples come to mind

151
Q

counterfactual thinking

A

tendency to imagine alternative outcomes

152
Q

false consensus effect

A

tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people share otu opinions, attitudes and behaviours

153
Q

false uniqueness effect/ better than average effect

A

tendency to underestimate extent to which people share our socially desirable characteristics and abilities

154
Q

planning fallacy

A

tendency for people to be overly optimistic about how long it will take to complete a project/ accomplish a task

155
Q

magical thinking

A

based on assumptions that don’t hold up to logic/reason (rational scrutiny); belief that our thoughts/ behaviours can influence the physcial world in a manner not governed by the laws of physics

156
Q

law of contagion (law of contact)

A

when two objects touch, they pass properties to one another

157
Q

law of similarity

A

objects that resemble each toher share certain basic properties

158
Q

mood dependent memory

A

more likely to remember information if your mood at the time of recall matches the time of memory storage/ information learning (encoding/ recall mood match)

159
Q

attitude

A

an evaluation of someone or something

160
Q

components of attitudes (3)

A

ABC’s: (1) affective, (2) behavioural and (3) cognitive

161
Q

measuring attitudes (2)

A

(1) Likert scale (strongly agree->disagree) (2) semantic differential scale (bipolar adjective pairs)

162
Q

developing attitudes (2)

A

(1) learning (classical, operant and social) and (2) genetics

163
Q

functions of attitudes (4)

A

(1) instrumetnal fuciton (reward/punsihemnt), (2) knowledge function, (3) self-esteem function (ego defense) and (4) self-expression function )value expressive)

164
Q

attitudes do not necessarily predict ___

A

behaviour

165
Q

attitude-behaviour inconsistency explanations (5)

A

(1) person holds other relevant attitudes, (2) many attitudes are stereotypes that don’t match reality when it is faced, (3) presence of others may influence behaviour, (4) prevailing social norms may conflict with certain attitudes and (5) unforseen extraneous events can drastically chnage peoples behaviour regardless of attitudes

166
Q

thoery of planned behaviour

A

attitudes influence our intentions to engage in a specific behaviour

167
Q

what determines intentions to engage in a specific behaviour? (3)

A

(1) attitudes toward behaviour, (2) subjective norms and (3) perceived behavioural control

168
Q

naturalistic observation

A

observation of people’s behaviour in natural settings without influencing the situation

169
Q

requirements for experimental method (2)

A

(1) random assignment of participants and (2) control of confounding variables

170
Q

mediating variables

A

ones that intervene between an independent variable and changes in social behaviour

171
Q

moderators

A

factors that can alter the effect of an independent variable on the dependent varialbe

172
Q

impression management (self-presentation)

A

efforts to make a good impression on others

173
Q

impression management categories (2)

A

(1) self-enhancement and (2) other-enhancement

174
Q

social comparison

A

tendency to compare ourselves with others in order to determine whether our view of soical reality is correct or not

175
Q

attitude extremity

A

the extent to which an individual feel strongly about an issue

176
Q

selective avoidance

A

tendency to direct out arrention away form information that challenges our existing attitudes

177
Q

causes of obedience (4)

A

(1) people in authority relieve those who obey of the responsibility, (2) badges, (3) gradual escalation of orders and (4) fast pace of events limits time to consider options

178
Q

resisting obedience (4)

A

(1) remembering you are responsible for your actions, (2) reminder that total submission is inappropriate, (3) question the experise and motives of authority figures and (4) understand the power of authority figures and its role in obedience

179
Q

symbolic social influence

A

considering what others would think about your potentional actions; psychological presence of others inour thoughts

180
Q

elaboration likelihood model

A

two routes to persuasion: central and peripheral

181
Q

central route processing

A

thinking very carefully about all aspects of the persuasive message

182
Q

peripheral route processing

A

more simplistic (heuristic) processing of information (superficial cues)

183
Q

what determines if we take a central or peripheral route of processing? (2)

A

(1) motivation to think about the message and (2) ability to process it

184
Q

cognitive dissonance

A

a state of psychological discomfort when you have inconsistencies between your behaviour and attitudes

185
Q

changing cognitive dissonance (3)

A

(1) change behaviour, (2) change belief or (3) change action perception

186
Q

less-leads-to-more effect

A

offering people small rewards for engaging in counter-attitudinal behaviour often produces more dissonance and so more attitude change than offering them larger rewards

187
Q

factors affecting dissonance (3)

A

(1) justification, (2) freedom of choice and (3) investment

Social psychology (3 decks)

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