Social psych - midterm 2 Flashcards
ch 7, 9 + some of 8
what is another name for “liking”?
interpersonal attraction
need for affiliation
a desire to establish social contact with others (relatively stable trait)
results of social exclusion (2)
(1) increased sensitivity to interpersonal information and (2) less effective cognitive functioning
self-disclosure
revealing our innermost thoughts and feelings
why do we respond to real-life threats with the desire to affiliate? (3)
(1) social comparison, (2) cognitive clairty and (3) emotional clarity
dimensions of affect (2)
(1) intensity/ valence and (2) arousal
a positive affect, regardless of its source, often leads to _____ _____ of other people (and vice versa)
positive evaluations
ways in which positive/ negative affect lead to positive/negatve evaluation of others (2)
(1) directly and (2) indirectly
when another peson says or does something that makes us feel good or bad, those feelings have a ___ effect on how much we like them
direct
indirect effects of affect on liking and disliking are also called…
associated effects
when unrelated events or people in you life impact whether you like or dislike someone, that is an ___ effect
indirect/associated
how do indirect effects of affect on attraction work?
the person is merely present at the same time as your emotional state is aroused by something unrelated
why do indirect effects of affect have such a large impact on attraction?
classical conditioning
proximity
physical nearness to others
situation-centered determinant of attraction
proximity
repeated exposure effect
the more often we are exposed to a new stimulus the more favorable our evaluation of it tends to become
based on the repeated exposure effect, do infants smile at photographs of people they’ve seen before or new faces more?
photographs of people they’ve seen before
what is the exception to the “increased contact = greater liking” equation?
when initial reactions to another person are negative, repeated contact leads to reduced rahter than increased attraction
why does increased frequency of exposure to another person increase liking of that person?
tend to feel more comfortable with that person and perceive that person as more responsive
stereotyping
making assumptions about social groups in terms of the traits they are beleived to share
Lemay, Clark and Greenberg’s (2010) steps to the stereotype “what is beautiful is good” (3)
(1) target is physically attractive, (2) we desire to form relationships with attractive people and the desire leads us to (3) perceive them as interpersonally responsive in return
female faces that are “attractive” (2)
(1) childlike features and (2) mature features
which colour is considered the most attractive by men?
red
Moreland & Beach 1992 study on the repeated exposure effect
college classroom assistants attended class either 15, 10, 5 or 0 times and students were then asked to indicate how much they liked them; the more they attended the more they were “liked”
characteristics associated with round body builds (3)
(1) easygoing disposition, (2) relaxed personality and (3) lack of personal discipline
characteristics associated with firm and muscular bodies (3)
(1) good health, (2) high energy and (3) vigor
characteristics associated with a thin and angular body (2)
(1) intellegence and (2) introspective personality
sources of liking based on social interaction (2)
(1) similarity and (2) social skills, personality traits and gender differences
similarity hypothesis
similarity is often the basis for important relationships such as friendships
Galton’s findings on the similarity of married couples
spouses did in fact resemble one another in many respects
Newcomb’s (1956) study on similarity
similar attitdues predicted subsequent liking between univesity transfer students
complementarities
differences that, when combined, help to make the individual parts work well together/ mutual reinforcing (i.e., complement each other)
examples of complementarities (3)
(1) dominant to submissive, (2) talkative people to quiet ones and (3) sadists to masochists
do direct tests support or fail to support the idea of complementarities as a determinant of attraction?
fail to support
is attraction based more strongly in similarity or complementarity?
similarity
similarity-dissimilarity effect
similarity tends toarous psoitive feelings and dissimilarity tends to arouse negative feelings
attitude similarity
the extent to which two individuals share the same ways of thinking or feeling toward something or another person
steps in Byrne’s (1961) laboratory experiments on attitude similarity (2)
(1) attitudes of the participants assessed and (2) these individuals were exposed to the attitudes, beliefs, vlaues and interests of a stranger and asked to evalute that person
results of Byrne’s 1961 study on attitude similarity
people consistently indicated that they liked strangers similar to themselves much better than they liked dissimilar ones; also judged those who were more similar as more intelligent, better informed, more moral and better adjusted than those who were dissimilar to them
proportion of similarity
attraction can be predicted by inserting (topics with shared similar views divided by total topics discussed) into a simple formula; the greater the proportion of similarity the greater the liking
matching hypothesis
we tend to choose partners who are similar to ourselves in physical attractiveness
study on the matching hypothesis
observers rated attractivess of two individuals in a video and the extend to which each partner engaged in efforts to make a favorable impression + partners each rated their interest in dating the stranger; men invested more energy in interactions with people of similar attractiveness but women did not show strong effort either way
implicit egotism
positive feelings about ourselves spill over into increased attraction toward otehrs who share the same trivial characterisitics
balance theory
people naturally orgnaize their likes and dislikes in a symmetrical way (because it is emotionally pleasant); similarity = balance, dissimilarity = inblance and dislike = nonbalance
social comparison theory (Festinger 1954)
you compare your attitudes and beliefs with those of others because the only way you can evaluate the accuaracy of your views and their “normality” is by finding that other people agree with you
what theory explain why similairty should matter?
social comaprison theory (Festinger 1954)
consensual validation
evidence that someone else shares our views
how does the rule of reciprocity operate with respect to attraction?
we tend to like those who express liking toward us and dislike those who express dislike for us
social skills
a combinations of aptitudes that help individuals who possess them to interact effectively with others
breakdown of social skills (4)
(1) social astuteness/ perception, (2) interpersonal influence, (3) social adaptability and (4) expressiveness
social astuteness/ perception
capacity to perceive and understand others accurately
interpersonal influence
ability to change others’ attitudes or behaivour by using a vairety of technqieus
social adaptability
capacity to adapt to a wide range of social situations and to interact effectively with a wide range of people
expressiveness
ability to show emotions openly, in a form others can readily perceive
narcissism
inflated views of ones self, an extreme and unjustified high self-esteem, largely ignore the needs and feeligns of others
why do narcissists seem likable at first?
initially viewed as charming, extraverted, more open and even more competent than other people
characteristics that both women and men uniformly find desirable in others (romantically) (4)
(1) trustworthiness and (2) cooperativeness, followed by (3) agreeableness and (4) extraversion
desirable characteristics across relationship types (4)
(1) trustworthiness and (2) cooperativeness followed by (3) agreeableness and (4) extraversion
do we value charactersitics the same regardless of relationship type?
their are four top valued charactersitics regardless and then other traits that we value differentially based on kind of relationship
do men or women value physical attraciveness more in romantic partners?
men
what trait do women assign great importance to in choosing romantic partners?
potential future earning
parental investment theory
the one who invests and risks the most in reporduction (female) will be the most particular when selecting a mate
love
a combination of emotions, cognitions, and bheaviours that play a crucial role in close relationships
falling in love leads to an increase in … (2)
(1) self-efficacy and (2) self-esteem
basic features of love (2)
(1) desire and (2) commitment
triangular model of love (Sternberg 1986)
each love relationship is made up of three basic components that are present in varying degrees in different couples; intimacy, passion and decision/ commitment
triangular model of love: intimacy
the closeness two people feel and the strength of the bond that holds them together
triangular model of love: passion
the secual motives and sexual excitement associatied with a couple’s relationship
triangular model of love: decision/ commitment
cognitive factors such as the decision to love and be with a person, plus a commitment to maintain the relationship on a permanent or long-term basis
Sternber’s types of relationships (7)
(1) liking (intimacy), (2) romantic love (intimacy+passion), (3) infatuation (passion), (4) fatuous love (passion+commitment), (5) empty love (decision/commitment), (6) companionate love (intimacy+commitment) and (7) consummate love (intimacy+passion+commitment)
companionate love
love based on a close relationship in which two people have a great deal in common, care about each other’s well-being and express mutual liking and respect
consummate love
balance of intimacy, passion and commitment/decision; ideal but difficult to attain
passionate love
emotional and often unrealistic response to a person; sexual attraction, strong emotional arousal, the desrie to be physically close and an intense need to be lvoed as much as you love the other person
unrequited love
when feelings of love are not returned by the partner
basic factors of passionate love (3)
(1) have a concept of passionate love and believe it exists, (2) an appropriate love object must be present and (3) you must be in a state of physiological arousal that can then be interpreted as the emotion of love
factors threatening to passionate love (2)
(1) jealousy and (2) infidelity
important characteristics people seem in a potential romantic parnter (2)
(1) physical beauty and (2) youth
jealousy
concerns that a romantic partner or other person about whom we care deeply might, or has already, transferred their affection or loyality to another person
when we are jealous things taste more…
bitter
why does jealousy occur?
anticipated or actual social rejection threatens our self-esteem
infidelity
a partner’s betrayal through intimate relations with others
effect of infidelity
increased depression
what is the relationship between power and infidelity?
more power, the greather their infidelity or intended infidelity
why does power lead to increased infidelity?
confidence
attachement style
the degree of security an individual feels in interpersonal relationships
infant’s basic attitudes acquired during early interactions with an adult (2)
(1) self-esteem and (2) interpersonal trust
interpersonal trust
involves general expectancies and beliefs about other people and is based on whether the caregiver is perceived by the infant as trustworthy, dependable and reliable.
what comes first, attitudes about self-esteem/ interpersonal trust or language?
basic attitudes about self-esteem/interpersonal trust
secure attachement style
high in self-esteem AND trust; best able to form lasting, committed, satisfying relationships throughout life; parent is always there when needed
fearful-avoidant attachement style
low in both self-esteem and interpersonal trust; tend to not form close relationships or tend to have unhappy ones
preoccupied/ anxious/ambivalent attachement style
low self-esteem and high interpersonal trust; desire closeness and readily form relationships but cling to others while expecting to be rejected eventually because they believe themselves to be unworthy; patent responds or is available sometimes but not other times
dismissing-avoidant attachment style
high in self-esteem and low in interpersonal trust; beleive that they are very deserving of good relationships but fear genuine closeness (say they don’t need or want close relationships with others)
can attachment styles change?
although they are formed early in life, they are NOT set in stone and can be changed by life experiences
life consequences of insecure attachement styles (5)
(1) lower performance in shcool as adolescents, (2) form fewer friendships, (3) often turn into “outsiders”, (4) higher levels of stress when they have conflicts within relationships and (5) are more likely to commit suicide (especially fearful-avoidant style)
among elementary school children, those ____ (with/without) siblings are found to be liked less by their classmates
without
steps of friendship (3)
(1) proximity, (2) maintained in part by mutual interests and by (3) positive experiences together
what role does similarity play in developing friendships?
perceived similarity appears to be more improtant than underlying reality (European student study)
how do advertisers/ politicians use understandings of how affect impacts attraction to sell products/ get voters?
they use indirect/ associated effects of emotions to arouse positive feelings about their product/ platform
what is the relationship between proximity and familiarity?
proximity -> repeated exposure effect -> familiarity (-> increased attraction)
“what is beautiful is good” effect
we tend to project positive interpersonal traits onto people we find attractive
close friendships
involve interacitng in many different situations, providing mutual social support and engaging in self-disclosure
prosocial behaviour
actions by individuals that has the goal of helping others, often, with no immediate benefit to the helpers
empathy
the capacity to be able to experience other’s emotional states, feel sympathetic toward them and take their perspective
empathy-altruism hypothesis
feelings of empathy for somene in need produces an altruistic motivation to help that person
components of empathy (3)
(1) emotional aspect (emotional empathy), (2) a cognitive component (empathic accuracy) and (3) emapthic concern
emotional empathy
sharing the feelings and emotions of others
empathic accuracy
perceiving other’s thought and feelings accurately
empathic concern
feelings of concern for another’s well-being
what did Gelason (2009) find about the relationship between empathic accuracy and social adjustment?
adolescents with high empathic accuracy have better social adjustment (more friends, more liked by thier peers, better quality friendships, less likely victimized by bullying or social exclusion)
what is the relationship between empathy and brain activity?
activity in brain regions identified as including motor neurons is higher for those high in empathic capacity
mirror neurons and ASD
individuals with this disordershow reduced activity in the mirror neuron system and reduced capacity to experience empathy
mirror neurons are active when observing what?
other’s emotional expressions, but not when the facial movements are unrelated to emotions (ex: chewing or sneezing)
how can activity in the mirror neuron regions be increased?
compassion training
factors that encourage empathy (3)
(1) positive affect, (2) desire to affiliate with others and (3) social desirability
social desirability
the desire to “look good” to others by doing the right or approved thing in a given situation
factors that discourage empathy (2)
(1) other’s suffering (too painful to watch) and (2) costs of experiencing empathy
negative-state relief model
we help because such actions allow us to reduce our own negative emotions; we help in order to stop feeling bad; we help to decrease the distress in ourselves caused by witnessing those in need/suffering (negative emotions can be aroused from the emergent situation or unrelated)
empathic joy hypothesis
helpers enjoy the positive reactions shown by others whom they help; motivated to help others in order to experience they joy that helping behaviour will bring them; crucial for the helper to know that his or her action had a positive impact on the victim
Smith, Keating and Stotland (1989) empathy study
participants watched a videotape of a female student saying she might drop out of college because she felt isolated and distressed; she was described as either similar to the participant (high empathy) or dissimilar (low empathy); participants had the opportunity to offer helpful advice in a video back; some were told they would receive feedback on impact and others that they wouldn’t; results: participants were only helpful if there was high empathy and also feeback about their actions impact
is empathy enough for prosocial behaviour?
according to Smith, KEating and Stotland (1989), NO. there also must be feedback about the impact of the prosocial behaviour; evidence against the empathic-altruism hypothesis
there is a positive correlation between donating money ot charity and ____
subjective well-being (degree to which they were satisfied with their lives)
functional relationship
exists in all countries but in varying degrees
accessible relationship
it appears everywhere with little or no variation
competitive altruism
helping others boosts their own status and reputation and ultimately brings them large benefits that offset the costs of engaging in prosocial actions
kin selection theory
from an evolutionary perspective, a key goal for all ogranisms is getting our genes into the next generation… so we are more likely to help those we are closely related to and young relatives even more so
reciprocal altruism theory
we may be willing to help people unrelated to us because helping is usually reciprocated and that would increase survival chances
defensive helping
helping those in an outgroup in order to remove a threat to our ingroup
diffusion of responsibility
the individual assumes that other people present in a situation will take responsibility for helping
Choking student experiment
a fellow student (actor) had a seizure and began to choke, some participants thought they were alone with the victim while others thought there was another bystander and others thought there were 4 other bystanders; the more bystanders were present, the lower percentage who made a prosocial repsonse and the longer they waited to do it
aversive racism
negative emotional reactiosn to people of a certain race
black victims are less likely to receive help from ____ bystanders
white
steps to helping in an emergency (5)
(1) noticing that something unusual is happening, (2) correctly interpreting an event as an emergency, (3) deciding that it is your responsibility to provide help, (4) deciding how to help and (5) providing help
pluralistic ignorance
tendency for an individual surrounded by a group of strangers to hesitate and do nothing because none of the bystanders knows for sure what is happening and each depends on the others to provide clues
Smoke experiment
students were in a room alone or with two other students and asked to fill our questionnaires; after several minutes, experiments secretly pumped smoke into the research room through a vent; 75 of alone students left to report it whereas only 10 (38) percent of the non-alone participants reacted to the smoke
are people in small towns or big cities more likely to help?
small towns
does alcohol consumption increase or reduce helping?
increase; anxiety about the reactions of others and the fear of doing the wrong thing is reduced
“cognitive algebra”
conducted when making the final decision to help; weighing the psoitive versus negative aspects of helping
Flat tire experiment
people who had passed a scenario where another woman was being helped with her flat tire were more likely to stop and help the second flat tire woman
factors that increase prosocial behaviour (5)
(1) similar people, (2) exposure to prosocial model, (3) playing prosocial vidoe games, (4) feelings that reduce oru focus on ourselves and (5) social class
why do prosocial video games increase the tendency to engage in similar actions?
playing prosocial video games influences acutal helping by inflencing participants’ thoughts (determined by a follow-up to the pencil dropping and harrasement studies in which participants were asked their thought process)
video games and prosocial behaviour: pencil dropping study
played neutral, prosocial or aggresive video games and then were exposed to a situation which they could engage in spontaneous helping (experimenter dropped pencils); higher proportion of those who had played the prosocial video games (57%) helped; 33% for neutral and 28% for aggressive
video games and prosocial behaviour study part 2
after either playing neutral or prosocial video games, participant was exposed to a situation in which a male assistant harassed a female experimenter; 56% of prosical video game players intervened whereas 22% of neutral game players
longitudinal video game and prosocial behaviour study results
amount of time participants played prosocial video games was related ot hteir helping of others several months later, plus the more they played, the more likley they were to report engaging in such actions as “helping a person who was in trouble” months later ; effects are short AND long-term in nature
Are video games harmful?
depends on whether they are aggressive, neutral or prosocial (content over existence)
relationship between feelings of awe and prosocial behaviour
when we experience awe, our concer with oursleves an dour worries can increase our tnedency to help others; for instance, individuals who felt reduced self-importance were more likely to donate to a good cause and were less selfish intheir personal relationships with others
awe and prosocial behaviour study
participants either looked up at tall impressive trees for a minute (awe) or a tall but usual building (non-awe) and were then exposed to a minor accident (spilled pens); those who saw the trees/ experienced awe helped more
awe is a measure/ example of ___
reduced focus on ourselves
“dictator game” study
a participant must divide 10 points between theselves and a partner, who can accept or reject it but cannot change it; measure of prosocial behaviour; the lower the first particpants were on the 10-rungs of socioeconomic status the more points they gave their partner
why does socioeconomic status impact prosocial behaivour?
compassion; individuals lower in SES expressed greater compassion for others than individuals higher in SES
what is the relationship between SES and kindness?
negatively correlated
paying it forward museum (or coffee house) study
on a pay-what-you-wish day at a museum participants were either payed for by the person before them or not; those who were part of a “pay it forward” condition decided to pay MORE (3.07) than those who were paying for themself (2.19)
effects of social exclusion (4)
(1) undermines self-esteem, (2) leads people to feel isolated, (3) leads to less satisfaction with life and (4) reduces the tendency of the excluded people to help others
why does social exclusion reduce tendency to help others? (4)
(1) reduced feelings of empathy, (2) a tendency to see these people as hurtful or aggresive, (3) seeking to harm the people who exluded them and (4) produces a strong negative affect
social exclusion study
after a personality test, participants were told they would either have many rewarding relationships in the future, were likely to end up alone or were likely to have accidents and then were given a payment that could either be kept, partially or fully donated to a student emergency fund; those who were told they would later be exluded donated less
deindividuation
a reduced state of self-awareness that encourages impulsive behaviour
deindividuation/ anonymity study
participants in a darkened or light room had to do a task and record their own score, if they did well they were told they would receive extra money; 50% of participants in the darkened room overstated their performance (disobey social norms)
factors that reduce helping (3)
(1) social exclusion, (2) anonymite/deindividuation/darkness, and (3) putting an economic value on our time
why do prosocial actions sometimes produce negative reactions? (2)
(1) threatens our self-esteem and (2) feelings of inferiority
why do expressions of gratitude increase prosocial behaivour?
boosts self-worth
gratitude study
after editing an application, participant met the student who either thanked or did not thank them; those who were thanked spent more time editing the second application
economizing time and prosocial behaviour study
law students and newly in the work-force lawyers (who billed for their time) were surveyed on their willingness to help; those who didn’t have experience billing for their time expressed less willingness to help
crowdfunding
a process in which entrepreneurs use the money contributed to set up and then run their companies; example of prosocial behaviour as their is little/ no reward for donors
link between positive emotions and helping
generally a positive correlation; people are more likely to help a stranger when their mood ahs been elevated by some recent experience; exception: can cause people to interpret an emergency as non-emergent or can cause non-helping because people don’t want to detract from their current good mood
factors that link negative emotions and helping (3)
a negative mood or emotion is most likely to INCREASE prosocial behaviour if (1) the negative feelings are not too intense, (2) the emergency is clear-cut and (3) the act of helpign is interesting and satisfying
elation
feeling inspired, uplifted and optimistic
elation and prosocial behaviour study
participants were either shown a prosocial action, a neutran video about the ocean or a video shaowing a funny comedian (mirth condition); given the chance to volunteer to fill out a boring questionnair; those who viewed the elevating video volunteered twice as much as the other conditions
gender differences in prosocial behaviour
women: helping those whom they share personal relationships with; community or individual needs for assistance
men: strangers ; heroic actions
aggression
intentional efforts to harm others in some way
conformity
doing what we are expected to do in a given situation
social norms
rules about how we should behave
types of social norms (2)
(1) explicit and (2) implicit
why do people conform? (2)
(1) avoid chaotic/ unpredictable behaviour and (2) to “look good” to others
Asch’s line conformity experiment
particiapnts were asked to report their judgements on line lengths out loud after hearing other people say theirs; on certain “critical” trials, all assistants gave wrong answers which caused participants to follow suit (76% at least once, overall agreement was voiced 37% of the time); in the control where participants answered alone, only 5% answered wrong; 25% in the group NEVER yielded to the group pressure and some always agreed with the group
in Asch’s study, why did people go along with the majority? (2)
(1) they had little confidence in their own judgements or (2) they recognized that the others were suffering from an optical illusion but acted as sheep following the first persons response
Asch’s follow-up conformity study
unanimity was broken by having one accomplice answer differently and becoming an “ally” with the participant; this caused the particiapnt to break conformity (especially when the accomplice answered MORE extremely wrong)
feeling like we are unique and stand out in a crowd is a ____-____ ____
self-enhancing illusion
actor-observer difference
we each know more about our own thoguhts and feelings than we do about the thoughts and feelings of others, so we tend to conclude that conformity pressure is less important in shaping OUR actions than those of other people
introspection illusion
often, conformity occurs nonconsciously, and so escapes our introspection (notice)
introspection illusion study
participants read a series of recommendations about student life and learned that these recommendations had been endorsed or not endorsed by a group of fellow students and then voted on each proposal themselves, indicating whether they supported it or did not support it (this provided a measure of their conformity to the panel’s recommendations); they then rated how much they believed the panel’s recommendations had influenced their own behaviour and also the behaviour of another student whose answers they were shown; despite the stranger agreeing with the panel on the same number of recommendations as the participant (Same conformity), participants rated them as being MORE influenced than themselves were (and themselves as more influenced by content)
public conformity
doing or saying what others around us say or do
private acceptance
actually coming to feel or think as others do
topics addressed by Sherif (2)
(1) how do norms develop in social groups? and (2) how strong is their influence on behaivour once those norms emerge?
autokinetic phenomenon
when in a dark room and exposed to a single, stationary point of light, there are no clear cues to distance or location so most people perceive the light as moving around
Sherif’s social norm study
when a group is placed in a room and exposed to the autokinetic phenomenon they inflenced one another and soon converge on a particular amount of movement (a group norm); when exposed to the room alone, group members estimate the same amount of movement (consistent with group norm); therefore, the effect of such norms once formed can persist (private acceptance)
why explains social influence? (2)
we have a (1) strong desire to be “correct” leads us to behave consistent with social norms to attain that goal and (2) desire to be accepted by others and like by them
factors affecting conformity (4)
(1) cohesiveness: being influenced by those we like, (2) group size, (3) status within a group and (4) descriptive vs injunctive norms
cohesiveness
the extent to which we are attracted to a particular social group and want to belong to it
link between cohesiveness and conformity
positive (especially if we are uncertain of winning their acceptance)
how does group size affect conformity?
the bigger the group the more conformity, up until 3-4 or 8 members (then it levels off)
how does status within a group affect conformity?
those who have more seniority feel less pressure to conform; junior members experience stronger pressures to go along (as a way to gain status)
descriptive norms
norms taht simply describe what most people do in a given situation
injunctive norms
specify how people OUGHT to behave
normative focus theory
suggests that norms will influence behaviour only ot the extent that they are SALIENT to the people involved at the time the behaiour occurs (will obey injuctive norms only when they thnk about them and see them as applying to themselves and their actions)
ignoring injunctive norms
injunctive norms only influence our actions when we recognize them and believe that they apply to us personally; this is one reason why people sometimes ignore even clear and strong injunctive norms
interpersonal attraction
how much we like/ or are attracted to another person
who does proximity often lead to liking? (3)
(1) repeated exposure effect, (2) social rewards (easier to obtain with proximity and (3) expectations fo future interactions
target-centered determinants of attraction (3)
(1) similarity, (2) reciprocity of liking and (3) physical attractiveness
ingratiation
deliberate attempt to gain favour with another person
reciprocity of liking
we are usually attracted to people who like us
aesthetic appeal
we find their appearance pleasant (rewarding) to look at (“eye candy”)
“what is beautiful is good” stereotype/ halo effect
the belief that physically attractivepeople possess other socially desirable traits as well
social profit
being friends with someone who is highly attractive may enhance other people’s perceptions of how attractive YOU are perceived as being (eg. radiation and contrast effects)
radiation effect
a person of average attraciveness tends to be rated as more attractive when they are paired with someone who is highly attractive (however, evaluations ofowmen do not seem to be affected bythe looks of their male partner)
contrast effect
a person of average attractiveness tends to be rated as more attracive after others have just seen an unattractive person of the same sex, but is rated as less attractive after others have jsut seen a highly attractive person
why physical attractiveness is a determinant of attraction (3)
(1) rewarding, (2) what is beautiful is good stereotype and (3) social profit (eg. radiation, contrast effect)
baby-faced facial features
large eyes, small nose, full lips and a small chin
mature facial features (women)
prominent cheekbones, high eyebrows, large pupils and a big smile
mature facial features (men)
small eyes, broad forehead, thin lips and a large jaw
based on the evolutionary perspective, what are hetero men attracted to?
women whose facial features and bodily appearance suggests youth, health and fertility
based on the evolutionary perspective, what are hetero women attracted to?
men whose facial features and bodily characteristics suggest maturity and physical strength
personal ads from mid-western american newspaper study
offering: women were more likely than men to be offering physical attractiveness, wehreas men were more likely than women to be offering material resources
seeking: men were more likely that women to be seeking a physically attractive partner whereas women were more likely than men to be seeking amterial resources
“costs” of being beautiful (2)
(1) are people being nice to me just because they think i’m good looking or do they genuinely like me for who I am? and (2) pressure to maintain one’s physical appearance
not old do we perceive attractive people as more likeable, we perceive ___ people as more ____
likeable; attractive
intimacy
feelings of closeness, affection, connectedness with another person
example of liking (type of love)
friendship
example of fatuous love
whirlwind courtship; puppy love
example of empty love
stagnant or empty-shell marriage
example of romantic love
summer love affair or holidy fling
example of companionate love
committed marriage
Hatfield and Bersheid’s love scale (2)
passionate love (a state of (1) intense longing for complete union with another person and (2) comanionate love (the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply entwined
Ainsworth: percentage of white, American, middle class children with different attachment styles
secure: 65%, avoidant: 23%
anxious/ambivalent/preoccupied: 12%
Hazan and Shaver: percentage of adults with different attachment styles
secure: 56%
avoidant: 25%
anxious/ambivalent/preoccupied: 19%
types of avoidant attachment (Bartholomew) (2)
(1) fearful-avoidant and (2)dismissing avoidant
avoidant attachment style
parent is generally unresponsive or even rejecting in times of need or distress
categories of helping (4)
(1) casual, (2) substantial, (3) emotional and (4) emergency
casual helping
lending someone a pen, holding a door open
substantial helping
helping a friend move
emotional helping
providing a listening ear or shoulder to cry on
emergency helping
assisting a stranger after a car accident or a mugging
famous example of bystander effect and diffusion of responsibility
Kitty Genovese
bystander effect
individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present that if the person who could help is alone
barrier to helping at step 1
being preoccupied/ distracted (texting, in a hurry, intoxicated)
urban overload hypothesis
people who live in big cities get used to blocking out all kinds of stimuli an dso many fail to notice an event
Darley and Batson’s (1973) seminary student study
early: 63%
on time: 45%
late: 10%
compliance
changes in behaviour that are elicited by direct requests
how do we get other people to do what we want them to do? (5)
(1) do them a favour first so they owe you, (2) ask nicely, (3) guilt them, (4) bribe them and (5) blackmail them
foot-in-the-door technique
the tendency for people who have already agreed to a small request to subsequently agree to a larger request
foot-in-the-door study
asked if they can put up a large “drive carefully” sign in their front yard (17% said no); asked to put up a small “be a safe driver” window sticker (almost everyone agreed); followed 2 weeks later by a request about putting up the larger sign ag (76% agreed this time)
why does the foot-in-the-door technique work?
principle of consistency
door-in-the-face technique
begin by asking a large, unreasonable request (one you know will be turned down), and then ask for a smaller request (seems more reasonable)
example of door-in-the-face
“would you be willing to volunteer two hours a week in a program for delinquent children for the next two years?” (no one said yes); “would you be willing to donate two hours of your time to take a group of delinquent children on a trip to the zoo this weekend? (50% said yes)
why does the door-in-the-face technique work?
(1) norm of reciprocity and (2) self-presentation theory and (3) free-gift technique
norm of reciprocity
if you’re willing to compromise to be reasonable, I will try to as well
self-presentation theory
we like to present ourselves in a way that makes us look good, generous… etc
free-gift technique
giving someone somethign for free before making a request
that’s-not-all technique
the requester begins with an inflated request, and the, BEFORE the person has a chance to respond, the requester decreases the apparent size of the request by offering either a discount or a bonus
deadline technique
people are told they only have a limited time to take advantage of some offer
why does the deadline technique work?
principle of scarcity
principle of scarcity
we tink we’re getting a rare deal
step 2 of helping in an emergency: study
staged sidewalk fight between man and woman
condition 1: “get away, i don’t know why I ever married you!” (19% intervened)
condition 2: “get away, I don’t know you” (65% intervened)
barriers to helping at step 2 (2)
(1) ambiguity of the situation and (2) pluralistic ignorance
step 3 of helping in an emergency: beach study (Moriarty 1972)
confedorate arrives to beach and leaves stuff on sand; a second assistant comes to steal their radio
“watch stuff” condition: 95% tried to stop their
“do you have a light?” “no”; leaves to find one: 20% tried to stop theif
barrier to helping at step 3
diffusion of responsibility
step 4, deciding to help, can be done in what two ways?
(1) directly or (2) indirectly
barrier to helping at step 4
lacking in competence
barriers to helping at step 5 (2)
(1) audience inhibition and (2) costs outweigh benefits
audience inhibition
fear of looking foolish in front of people stops people from helping
ways to get help in an emergency (3)
(1) identify on eperson in the crown (diffusion of responsiblity), (2) clearly label situation as an EMERGENCY (ambiguity) and (3) give instructions on how to help (lack of competence?)
other factors that influence helping (3)
(1) mood, (2) environmental factors and (3) personality factors
influence of negative mood on helping: Roman Catholic study
roman catholics were solicited for a donation on the way in OR out of confession; those going IN donated more (because of guilt)
influence of negative mood on helping: camera study
participant asked to take picture with expensive camera
conditon 1: doesn’t work and person blames her (guilt)
condition 2: works (no guilt)
participant then saw assistant with hole in bag losing candy
55% in conditon 1 helped and 15% in condition 2
influence of positive mood on helping: coin study
people going to get picutres in a photo booth either found a “gift” coin left behind or didn’t; when put in a situation where they could help, 87% who had gotten the coin did and only 5% who didn’t get the coin did
good mood effect
people are more likely to help when in a good mood (limitation: the task is too difficult/unpleasant or its too long after the happiness inducing experience)
compared to non-helpers, helpers are: (4)
(1) high in empathy, (2) high in social responsibility, (3) low in egocentrism and (4) have an internal locus of control
people high in social responsibility…
are more likely to believe that everyone should do whatever they can to help others in need
egocentrism
being wrapped up in one’s own life
internal locus of control
believe they are in charge of their own destiny and they can make a real difference
who gets help when in need? (3)
(1) physically attractive people, (2) those who are similar to the helper and (3) women
who gets help when in need: physical attractiveness: airport study
airport travelers find package with grad school application and attached applicant photo
47% of applications with highly attractive people were mailed back
35% of applications with unattractive people were mailed back
what is one explanation for why women are more likely to receive help?
men are less likely to ASK for help
altruism
helping someone without expectation of personal gain
egoism
helping because it brings internal or external reward to the helper
low ball technique
person secures agreement with a request but the increases size of requires with hidden costs
low ball technique study
students told about psychology experiment they could do for extra credit
condition 1: told up front in starts at 7am (25% volunteered and showed up on time)
condition 2: only told the start time AFTER they volunteered (55% volunteered and nearly all showed up on time)
why does the low ball technique work?
principle of committment
principle of committment
sticking to a decision; once decision is made, we justify it and are less likely to change our mind
that’s-not-all technique cupcake study
condition 1: 75 cents each (40% bought them)
condition 2: $1… but I’ll let you have one for 75 cents (73%)
why does the that’s-not-all technique work?
norm of reciprocity
bait-and-switch technique
people are dwarn in with an attracive offer that is not avilable, which is withced to a less attractive offter that IS available
why does the bait-and-switch technique work?
priciple of committment
persuasion
deliberately trying to change someone’s attitudes
components of persuasion (3)
(1) source, (2) message and (3) recepient
overheard communicator trick
we will be more persuaded if we think the message wasn’t designed for us
psychological reactance
an unpleasant emotional reaction when someone tries to restict our freedom
