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Social psychology > Social psych - midterm 2 > Flashcards

Social psych - midterm 2 Flashcards

ch 7, 9 + some of 8

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1
Q

what is another name for “liking”?

A

interpersonal attraction

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2
Q

need for affiliation

A

a desire to establish social contact with others (relatively stable trait)

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3
Q

results of social exclusion (2)

A

(1) increased sensitivity to interpersonal information and (2) less effective cognitive functioning

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4
Q

self-disclosure

A

revealing our innermost thoughts and feelings

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5
Q

why do we respond to real-life threats with the desire to affiliate? (3)

A

(1) social comparison, (2) cognitive clairty and (3) emotional clarity

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6
Q

dimensions of affect (2)

A

(1) intensity/ valence and (2) arousal

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7
Q

a positive affect, regardless of its source, often leads to _____ _____ of other people (and vice versa)

A

positive evaluations

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8
Q

ways in which positive/ negative affect lead to positive/negatve evaluation of others (2)

A

(1) directly and (2) indirectly

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9
Q

when another peson says or does something that makes us feel good or bad, those feelings have a ___ effect on how much we like them

A

direct

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10
Q

indirect effects of affect on liking and disliking are also called…

A

associated effects

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11
Q

when unrelated events or people in you life impact whether you like or dislike someone, that is an ___ effect

A

indirect/associated

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12
Q

how do indirect effects of affect on attraction work?

A

the person is merely present at the same time as your emotional state is aroused by something unrelated

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13
Q

why do indirect effects of affect have such a large impact on attraction?

A

classical conditioning

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14
Q

proximity

A

physical nearness to others

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15
Q

situation-centered determinant of attraction

A

proximity

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16
Q

repeated exposure effect

A

the more often we are exposed to a new stimulus the more favorable our evaluation of it tends to become

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17
Q

based on the repeated exposure effect, do infants smile at photographs of people they’ve seen before or new faces more?

A

photographs of people they’ve seen before

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18
Q

what is the exception to the “increased contact = greater liking” equation?

A

when initial reactions to another person are negative, repeated contact leads to reduced rahter than increased attraction

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19
Q

why does increased frequency of exposure to another person increase liking of that person?

A

tend to feel more comfortable with that person and perceive that person as more responsive

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20
Q

stereotyping

A

making assumptions about social groups in terms of the traits they are beleived to share

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21
Q

Lemay, Clark and Greenberg’s (2010) steps to the stereotype “what is beautiful is good” (3)

A

(1) target is physically attractive, (2) we desire to form relationships with attractive people and the desire leads us to (3) perceive them as interpersonally responsive in return

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22
Q

female faces that are “attractive” (2)

A

(1) childlike features and (2) mature features

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23
Q

which colour is considered the most attractive by men?

A

red

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24
Q

Moreland & Beach 1992 study on the repeated exposure effect

A

college classroom assistants attended class either 15, 10, 5 or 0 times and students were then asked to indicate how much they liked them; the more they attended the more they were “liked”

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25
Q

characteristics associated with round body builds (3)

A

(1) easygoing disposition, (2) relaxed personality and (3) lack of personal discipline

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26
Q

characteristics associated with firm and muscular bodies (3)

A

(1) good health, (2) high energy and (3) vigor

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27
Q

characteristics associated with a thin and angular body (2)

A

(1) intellegence and (2) introspective personality

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28
Q

sources of liking based on social interaction (2)

A

(1) similarity and (2) social skills, personality traits and gender differences

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29
Q

similarity hypothesis

A

similarity is often the basis for important relationships such as friendships

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30
Q

Galton’s findings on the similarity of married couples

A

spouses did in fact resemble one another in many respects

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31
Q

Newcomb’s (1956) study on similarity

A

similar attitdues predicted subsequent liking between univesity transfer students

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32
Q

complementarities

A

differences that, when combined, help to make the individual parts work well together/ mutual reinforcing (i.e., complement each other)

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33
Q

examples of complementarities (3)

A

(1) dominant to submissive, (2) talkative people to quiet ones and (3) sadists to masochists

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34
Q

do direct tests support or fail to support the idea of complementarities as a determinant of attraction?

A

fail to support

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35
Q

is attraction based more strongly in similarity or complementarity?

A

similarity

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36
Q

similarity-dissimilarity effect

A

similarity tends toarous psoitive feelings and dissimilarity tends to arouse negative feelings

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37
Q

attitude similarity

A

the extent to which two individuals share the same ways of thinking or feeling toward something or another person

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38
Q

steps in Byrne’s (1961) laboratory experiments on attitude similarity (2)

A

(1) attitudes of the participants assessed and (2) these individuals were exposed to the attitudes, beliefs, vlaues and interests of a stranger and asked to evalute that person

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39
Q

results of Byrne’s 1961 study on attitude similarity

A

people consistently indicated that they liked strangers similar to themselves much better than they liked dissimilar ones; also judged those who were more similar as more intelligent, better informed, more moral and better adjusted than those who were dissimilar to them

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40
Q

proportion of similarity

A

attraction can be predicted by inserting (topics with shared similar views divided by total topics discussed) into a simple formula; the greater the proportion of similarity the greater the liking

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41
Q

matching hypothesis

A

we tend to choose partners who are similar to ourselves in physical attractiveness

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42
Q

study on the matching hypothesis

A

observers rated attractivess of two individuals in a video and the extend to which each partner engaged in efforts to make a favorable impression + partners each rated their interest in dating the stranger; men invested more energy in interactions with people of similar attractiveness but women did not show strong effort either way

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43
Q

implicit egotism

A

positive feelings about ourselves spill over into increased attraction toward otehrs who share the same trivial characterisitics

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44
Q

balance theory

A

people naturally orgnaize their likes and dislikes in a symmetrical way (because it is emotionally pleasant); similarity = balance, dissimilarity = inblance and dislike = nonbalance

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45
Q

social comparison theory (Festinger 1954)

A

you compare your attitudes and beliefs with those of others because the only way you can evaluate the accuaracy of your views and their “normality” is by finding that other people agree with you

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46
Q

what theory explain why similairty should matter?

A

social comaprison theory (Festinger 1954)

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47
Q

consensual validation

A

evidence that someone else shares our views

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48
Q

how does the rule of reciprocity operate with respect to attraction?

A

we tend to like those who express liking toward us and dislike those who express dislike for us

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49
Q

social skills

A

a combinations of aptitudes that help individuals who possess them to interact effectively with others

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50
Q

breakdown of social skills (4)

A

(1) social astuteness/ perception, (2) interpersonal influence, (3) social adaptability and (4) expressiveness

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51
Q

social astuteness/ perception

A

capacity to perceive and understand others accurately

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52
Q

interpersonal influence

A

ability to change others’ attitudes or behaivour by using a vairety of technqieus

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53
Q

social adaptability

A

capacity to adapt to a wide range of social situations and to interact effectively with a wide range of people

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54
Q

expressiveness

A

ability to show emotions openly, in a form others can readily perceive

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55
Q

narcissism

A

inflated views of ones self, an extreme and unjustified high self-esteem, largely ignore the needs and feeligns of others

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56
Q

why do narcissists seem likable at first?

A

initially viewed as charming, extraverted, more open and even more competent than other people

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57
Q

characteristics that both women and men uniformly find desirable in others (romantically) (4)

A

(1) trustworthiness and (2) cooperativeness, followed by (3) agreeableness and (4) extraversion

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58
Q

desirable characteristics across relationship types (4)

A

(1) trustworthiness and (2) cooperativeness followed by (3) agreeableness and (4) extraversion

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59
Q

do we value charactersitics the same regardless of relationship type?

A

their are four top valued charactersitics regardless and then other traits that we value differentially based on kind of relationship

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60
Q

do men or women value physical attraciveness more in romantic partners?

A

men

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61
Q

what trait do women assign great importance to in choosing romantic partners?

A

potential future earning

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62
Q

parental investment theory

A

the one who invests and risks the most in reporduction (female) will be the most particular when selecting a mate

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63
Q

love

A

a combination of emotions, cognitions, and bheaviours that play a crucial role in close relationships

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64
Q

falling in love leads to an increase in … (2)

A

(1) self-efficacy and (2) self-esteem

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65
Q

basic features of love (2)

A

(1) desire and (2) commitment

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66
Q

triangular model of love (Sternberg 1986)

A

each love relationship is made up of three basic components that are present in varying degrees in different couples; intimacy, passion and decision/ commitment

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67
Q

triangular model of love: intimacy

A

the closeness two people feel and the strength of the bond that holds them together

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68
Q

triangular model of love: passion

A

the secual motives and sexual excitement associatied with a couple’s relationship

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69
Q

triangular model of love: decision/ commitment

A

cognitive factors such as the decision to love and be with a person, plus a commitment to maintain the relationship on a permanent or long-term basis

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70
Q

Sternber’s types of relationships (7)

A

(1) liking (intimacy), (2) romantic love (intimacy+passion), (3) infatuation (passion), (4) fatuous love (passion+commitment), (5) empty love (decision/commitment), (6) companionate love (intimacy+commitment) and (7) consummate love (intimacy+passion+commitment)

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71
Q

companionate love

A

love based on a close relationship in which two people have a great deal in common, care about each other’s well-being and express mutual liking and respect

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72
Q

consummate love

A

balance of intimacy, passion and commitment/decision; ideal but difficult to attain

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73
Q

passionate love

A

emotional and often unrealistic response to a person; sexual attraction, strong emotional arousal, the desrie to be physically close and an intense need to be lvoed as much as you love the other person

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74
Q

unrequited love

A

when feelings of love are not returned by the partner

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75
Q

basic factors of passionate love (3)

A

(1) have a concept of passionate love and believe it exists, (2) an appropriate love object must be present and (3) you must be in a state of physiological arousal that can then be interpreted as the emotion of love

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76
Q

factors threatening to passionate love (2)

A

(1) jealousy and (2) infidelity

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77
Q

important characteristics people seem in a potential romantic parnter (2)

A

(1) physical beauty and (2) youth

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78
Q

jealousy

A

concerns that a romantic partner or other person about whom we care deeply might, or has already, transferred their affection or loyality to another person

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79
Q

when we are jealous things taste more…

A

bitter

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80
Q

why does jealousy occur?

A

anticipated or actual social rejection threatens our self-esteem

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81
Q

infidelity

A

a partner’s betrayal through intimate relations with others

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82
Q

effect of infidelity

A

increased depression

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83
Q

what is the relationship between power and infidelity?

A

more power, the greather their infidelity or intended infidelity

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84
Q

why does power lead to increased infidelity?

A

confidence

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85
Q

attachement style

A

the degree of security an individual feels in interpersonal relationships

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86
Q

infant’s basic attitudes acquired during early interactions with an adult (2)

A

(1) self-esteem and (2) interpersonal trust

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87
Q

interpersonal trust

A

involves general expectancies and beliefs about other people and is based on whether the caregiver is perceived by the infant as trustworthy, dependable and reliable.

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88
Q

what comes first, attitudes about self-esteem/ interpersonal trust or language?

A

basic attitudes about self-esteem/interpersonal trust

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89
Q

secure attachement style

A

high in self-esteem AND trust; best able to form lasting, committed, satisfying relationships throughout life; parent is always there when needed

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90
Q

fearful-avoidant attachement style

A

low in both self-esteem and interpersonal trust; tend to not form close relationships or tend to have unhappy ones

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91
Q

preoccupied/ anxious/ambivalent attachement style

A

low self-esteem and high interpersonal trust; desire closeness and readily form relationships but cling to others while expecting to be rejected eventually because they believe themselves to be unworthy; patent responds or is available sometimes but not other times

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92
Q

dismissing-avoidant attachment style

A

high in self-esteem and low in interpersonal trust; beleive that they are very deserving of good relationships but fear genuine closeness (say they don’t need or want close relationships with others)

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93
Q

can attachment styles change?

A

although they are formed early in life, they are NOT set in stone and can be changed by life experiences

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94
Q

life consequences of insecure attachement styles (5)

A

(1) lower performance in shcool as adolescents, (2) form fewer friendships, (3) often turn into “outsiders”, (4) higher levels of stress when they have conflicts within relationships and (5) are more likely to commit suicide (especially fearful-avoidant style)

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95
Q

among elementary school children, those ____ (with/without) siblings are found to be liked less by their classmates

A

without

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96
Q

steps of friendship (3)

A

(1) proximity, (2) maintained in part by mutual interests and by (3) positive experiences together

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97
Q

what role does similarity play in developing friendships?

A

perceived similarity appears to be more improtant than underlying reality (European student study)

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98
Q

how do advertisers/ politicians use understandings of how affect impacts attraction to sell products/ get voters?

A

they use indirect/ associated effects of emotions to arouse positive feelings about their product/ platform

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99
Q

what is the relationship between proximity and familiarity?

A

proximity -> repeated exposure effect -> familiarity (-> increased attraction)

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100
Q

“what is beautiful is good” effect

A

we tend to project positive interpersonal traits onto people we find attractive

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101
Q

close friendships

A

involve interacitng in many different situations, providing mutual social support and engaging in self-disclosure

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102
Q

prosocial behaviour

A

actions by individuals that has the goal of helping others, often, with no immediate benefit to the helpers

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103
Q

empathy

A

the capacity to be able to experience other’s emotional states, feel sympathetic toward them and take their perspective

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104
Q

empathy-altruism hypothesis

A

feelings of empathy for somene in need produces an altruistic motivation to help that person

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105
Q

components of empathy (3)

A

(1) emotional aspect (emotional empathy), (2) a cognitive component (empathic accuracy) and (3) emapthic concern

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106
Q

emotional empathy

A

sharing the feelings and emotions of others

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107
Q

empathic accuracy

A

perceiving other’s thought and feelings accurately

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108
Q

empathic concern

A

feelings of concern for another’s well-being

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109
Q

what did Gelason (2009) find about the relationship between empathic accuracy and social adjustment?

A

adolescents with high empathic accuracy have better social adjustment (more friends, more liked by thier peers, better quality friendships, less likely victimized by bullying or social exclusion)

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110
Q

what is the relationship between empathy and brain activity?

A

activity in brain regions identified as including motor neurons is higher for those high in empathic capacity

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111
Q

mirror neurons and ASD

A

individuals with this disordershow reduced activity in the mirror neuron system and reduced capacity to experience empathy

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112
Q

mirror neurons are active when observing what?

A

other’s emotional expressions, but not when the facial movements are unrelated to emotions (ex: chewing or sneezing)

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113
Q

how can activity in the mirror neuron regions be increased?

A

compassion training

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114
Q

factors that encourage empathy (3)

A

(1) positive affect, (2) desire to affiliate with others and (3) social desirability

115
Q

social desirability

A

the desire to “look good” to others by doing the right or approved thing in a given situation

116
Q

factors that discourage empathy (2)

A

(1) other’s suffering (too painful to watch) and (2) costs of experiencing empathy

117
Q

negative-state relief model

A

we help because such actions allow us to reduce our own negative emotions; we help in order to stop feeling bad; we help to decrease the distress in ourselves caused by witnessing those in need/suffering (negative emotions can be aroused from the emergent situation or unrelated)

118
Q

empathic joy hypothesis

A

helpers enjoy the positive reactions shown by others whom they help; motivated to help others in order to experience they joy that helping behaviour will bring them; crucial for the helper to know that his or her action had a positive impact on the victim

119
Q

Smith, Keating and Stotland (1989) empathy study

A

participants watched a videotape of a female student saying she might drop out of college because she felt isolated and distressed; she was described as either similar to the participant (high empathy) or dissimilar (low empathy); participants had the opportunity to offer helpful advice in a video back; some were told they would receive feedback on impact and others that they wouldn’t; results: participants were only helpful if there was high empathy and also feeback about their actions impact

120
Q

is empathy enough for prosocial behaviour?

A

according to Smith, KEating and Stotland (1989), NO. there also must be feedback about the impact of the prosocial behaviour; evidence against the empathic-altruism hypothesis

121
Q

there is a positive correlation between donating money ot charity and ____

A

subjective well-being (degree to which they were satisfied with their lives)

122
Q

functional relationship

A

exists in all countries but in varying degrees

123
Q

accessible relationship

A

it appears everywhere with little or no variation

124
Q

competitive altruism

A

helping others boosts their own status and reputation and ultimately brings them large benefits that offset the costs of engaging in prosocial actions

125
Q

kin selection theory

A

from an evolutionary perspective, a key goal for all ogranisms is getting our genes into the next generation… so we are more likely to help those we are closely related to and young relatives even more so

126
Q

reciprocal altruism theory

A

we may be willing to help people unrelated to us because helping is usually reciprocated and that would increase survival chances

127
Q

defensive helping

A

helping those in an outgroup in order to remove a threat to our ingroup

128
Q

diffusion of responsibility

A

the individual assumes that other people present in a situation will take responsibility for helping

129
Q

Choking student experiment

A

a fellow student (actor) had a seizure and began to choke, some participants thought they were alone with the victim while others thought there was another bystander and others thought there were 4 other bystanders; the more bystanders were present, the lower percentage who made a prosocial repsonse and the longer they waited to do it

130
Q

aversive racism

A

negative emotional reactiosn to people of a certain race

131
Q

black victims are less likely to receive help from ____ bystanders

A

white

132
Q

steps to helping in an emergency (5)

A

(1) noticing that something unusual is happening, (2) correctly interpreting an event as an emergency, (3) deciding that it is your responsibility to provide help, (4) deciding how to help and (5) providing help

133
Q

pluralistic ignorance

A

tendency for an individual surrounded by a group of strangers to hesitate and do nothing because none of the bystanders knows for sure what is happening and each depends on the others to provide clues

134
Q

Smoke experiment

A

students were in a room alone or with two other students and asked to fill our questionnaires; after several minutes, experiments secretly pumped smoke into the research room through a vent; 75 of alone students left to report it whereas only 10 (38) percent of the non-alone participants reacted to the smoke

135
Q

are people in small towns or big cities more likely to help?

A

small towns

136
Q

does alcohol consumption increase or reduce helping?

A

increase; anxiety about the reactions of others and the fear of doing the wrong thing is reduced

137
Q

“cognitive algebra”

A

conducted when making the final decision to help; weighing the psoitive versus negative aspects of helping

138
Q

Flat tire experiment

A

people who had passed a scenario where another woman was being helped with her flat tire were more likely to stop and help the second flat tire woman

139
Q

factors that increase prosocial behaviour (5)

A

(1) similar people, (2) exposure to prosocial model, (3) playing prosocial vidoe games, (4) feelings that reduce oru focus on ourselves and (5) social class

140
Q

why do prosocial video games increase the tendency to engage in similar actions?

A

playing prosocial video games influences acutal helping by inflencing participants’ thoughts (determined by a follow-up to the pencil dropping and harrasement studies in which participants were asked their thought process)

141
Q

video games and prosocial behaviour: pencil dropping study

A

played neutral, prosocial or aggresive video games and then were exposed to a situation which they could engage in spontaneous helping (experimenter dropped pencils); higher proportion of those who had played the prosocial video games (57%) helped; 33% for neutral and 28% for aggressive

142
Q

video games and prosocial behaviour study part 2

A

after either playing neutral or prosocial video games, participant was exposed to a situation in which a male assistant harassed a female experimenter; 56% of prosical video game players intervened whereas 22% of neutral game players

143
Q

longitudinal video game and prosocial behaviour study results

A

amount of time participants played prosocial video games was related ot hteir helping of others several months later, plus the more they played, the more likley they were to report engaging in such actions as “helping a person who was in trouble” months later ; effects are short AND long-term in nature

144
Q

Are video games harmful?

A

depends on whether they are aggressive, neutral or prosocial (content over existence)

145
Q

relationship between feelings of awe and prosocial behaviour

A

when we experience awe, our concer with oursleves an dour worries can increase our tnedency to help others; for instance, individuals who felt reduced self-importance were more likely to donate to a good cause and were less selfish intheir personal relationships with others

146
Q

awe and prosocial behaviour study

A

participants either looked up at tall impressive trees for a minute (awe) or a tall but usual building (non-awe) and were then exposed to a minor accident (spilled pens); those who saw the trees/ experienced awe helped more

147
Q

awe is a measure/ example of ___

A

reduced focus on ourselves

148
Q

“dictator game” study

A

a participant must divide 10 points between theselves and a partner, who can accept or reject it but cannot change it; measure of prosocial behaviour; the lower the first particpants were on the 10-rungs of socioeconomic status the more points they gave their partner

149
Q

why does socioeconomic status impact prosocial behaivour?

A

compassion; individuals lower in SES expressed greater compassion for others than individuals higher in SES

150
Q

what is the relationship between SES and kindness?

A

negatively correlated

151
Q

paying it forward museum (or coffee house) study

A

on a pay-what-you-wish day at a museum participants were either payed for by the person before them or not; those who were part of a “pay it forward” condition decided to pay MORE (3.07) than those who were paying for themself (2.19)

152
Q

effects of social exclusion (4)

A

(1) undermines self-esteem, (2) leads people to feel isolated, (3) leads to less satisfaction with life and (4) reduces the tendency of the excluded people to help others

153
Q

why does social exclusion reduce tendency to help others? (4)

A

(1) reduced feelings of empathy, (2) a tendency to see these people as hurtful or aggresive, (3) seeking to harm the people who exluded them and (4) produces a strong negative affect

154
Q

social exclusion study

A

after a personality test, participants were told they would either have many rewarding relationships in the future, were likely to end up alone or were likely to have accidents and then were given a payment that could either be kept, partially or fully donated to a student emergency fund; those who were told they would later be exluded donated less

155
Q

deindividuation

A

a reduced state of self-awareness that encourages impulsive behaviour

156
Q

deindividuation/ anonymity study

A

participants in a darkened or light room had to do a task and record their own score, if they did well they were told they would receive extra money; 50% of participants in the darkened room overstated their performance (disobey social norms)

157
Q

factors that reduce helping (3)

A

(1) social exclusion, (2) anonymite/deindividuation/darkness, and (3) putting an economic value on our time

158
Q

why do prosocial actions sometimes produce negative reactions? (2)

A

(1) threatens our self-esteem and (2) feelings of inferiority

159
Q

why do expressions of gratitude increase prosocial behaivour?

A

boosts self-worth

160
Q

gratitude study

A

after editing an application, participant met the student who either thanked or did not thank them; those who were thanked spent more time editing the second application

161
Q

economizing time and prosocial behaviour study

A

law students and newly in the work-force lawyers (who billed for their time) were surveyed on their willingness to help; those who didn’t have experience billing for their time expressed less willingness to help

162
Q

crowdfunding

A

a process in which entrepreneurs use the money contributed to set up and then run their companies; example of prosocial behaviour as their is little/ no reward for donors

163
Q

link between positive emotions and helping

A

generally a positive correlation; people are more likely to help a stranger when their mood ahs been elevated by some recent experience; exception: can cause people to interpret an emergency as non-emergent or can cause non-helping because people don’t want to detract from their current good mood

164
Q

factors that link negative emotions and helping (3)

A

a negative mood or emotion is most likely to INCREASE prosocial behaviour if (1) the negative feelings are not too intense, (2) the emergency is clear-cut and (3) the act of helpign is interesting and satisfying

165
Q

elation

A

feeling inspired, uplifted and optimistic

166
Q

elation and prosocial behaviour study

A

participants were either shown a prosocial action, a neutran video about the ocean or a video shaowing a funny comedian (mirth condition); given the chance to volunteer to fill out a boring questionnair; those who viewed the elevating video volunteered twice as much as the other conditions

167
Q

gender differences in prosocial behaviour

A

women: helping those whom they share personal relationships with; community or individual needs for assistance
men: strangers ; heroic actions

168
Q

aggression

A

intentional efforts to harm others in some way

169
Q

conformity

A

doing what we are expected to do in a given situation

170
Q

social norms

A

rules about how we should behave

171
Q

types of social norms (2)

A

(1) explicit and (2) implicit

172
Q

why do people conform? (2)

A

(1) avoid chaotic/ unpredictable behaviour and (2) to “look good” to others

173
Q

Asch’s line conformity experiment

A

particiapnts were asked to report their judgements on line lengths out loud after hearing other people say theirs; on certain “critical” trials, all assistants gave wrong answers which caused participants to follow suit (76% at least once, overall agreement was voiced 37% of the time); in the control where participants answered alone, only 5% answered wrong; 25% in the group NEVER yielded to the group pressure and some always agreed with the group

174
Q

in Asch’s study, why did people go along with the majority? (2)

A

(1) they had little confidence in their own judgements or (2) they recognized that the others were suffering from an optical illusion but acted as sheep following the first persons response

175
Q

Asch’s follow-up conformity study

A

unanimity was broken by having one accomplice answer differently and becoming an “ally” with the participant; this caused the particiapnt to break conformity (especially when the accomplice answered MORE extremely wrong)

176
Q

feeling like we are unique and stand out in a crowd is a ____-____ ____

A

self-enhancing illusion

177
Q

actor-observer difference

A

we each know more about our own thoguhts and feelings than we do about the thoughts and feelings of others, so we tend to conclude that conformity pressure is less important in shaping OUR actions than those of other people

178
Q

introspection illusion

A

often, conformity occurs nonconsciously, and so escapes our introspection (notice)

179
Q

introspection illusion study

A

participants read a series of recommendations about student life and learned that these recommendations had been endorsed or not endorsed by a group of fellow students and then voted on each proposal themselves, indicating whether they supported it or did not support it (this provided a measure of their conformity to the panel’s recommendations); they then rated how much they believed the panel’s recommendations had influenced their own behaviour and also the behaviour of another student whose answers they were shown; despite the stranger agreeing with the panel on the same number of recommendations as the participant (Same conformity), participants rated them as being MORE influenced than themselves were (and themselves as more influenced by content)

180
Q

public conformity

A

doing or saying what others around us say or do

181
Q

private acceptance

A

actually coming to feel or think as others do

182
Q

topics addressed by Sherif (2)

A

(1) how do norms develop in social groups? and (2) how strong is their influence on behaivour once those norms emerge?

183
Q

autokinetic phenomenon

A

when in a dark room and exposed to a single, stationary point of light, there are no clear cues to distance or location so most people perceive the light as moving around

184
Q

Sherif’s social norm study

A

when a group is placed in a room and exposed to the autokinetic phenomenon they inflenced one another and soon converge on a particular amount of movement (a group norm); when exposed to the room alone, group members estimate the same amount of movement (consistent with group norm); therefore, the effect of such norms once formed can persist (private acceptance)

185
Q

why explains social influence? (2)

A

we have a (1) strong desire to be “correct” leads us to behave consistent with social norms to attain that goal and (2) desire to be accepted by others and like by them

186
Q

factors affecting conformity (4)

A

(1) cohesiveness: being influenced by those we like, (2) group size, (3) status within a group and (4) descriptive vs injunctive norms

187
Q

cohesiveness

A

the extent to which we are attracted to a particular social group and want to belong to it

188
Q

link between cohesiveness and conformity

A

positive (especially if we are uncertain of winning their acceptance)

189
Q

how does group size affect conformity?

A

the bigger the group the more conformity, up until 3-4 or 8 members (then it levels off)

190
Q

how does status within a group affect conformity?

A

those who have more seniority feel less pressure to conform; junior members experience stronger pressures to go along (as a way to gain status)

191
Q

descriptive norms

A

norms taht simply describe what most people do in a given situation

192
Q

injunctive norms

A

specify how people OUGHT to behave

193
Q

normative focus theory

A

suggests that norms will influence behaviour only ot the extent that they are SALIENT to the people involved at the time the behaiour occurs (will obey injuctive norms only when they thnk about them and see them as applying to themselves and their actions)

194
Q

ignoring injunctive norms

A

injunctive norms only influence our actions when we recognize them and believe that they apply to us personally; this is one reason why people sometimes ignore even clear and strong injunctive norms

195
Q

interpersonal attraction

A

how much we like/ or are attracted to another person

196
Q

who does proximity often lead to liking? (3)

A

(1) repeated exposure effect, (2) social rewards (easier to obtain with proximity and (3) expectations fo future interactions

197
Q

target-centered determinants of attraction (3)

A

(1) similarity, (2) reciprocity of liking and (3) physical attractiveness

198
Q

ingratiation

A

deliberate attempt to gain favour with another person

199
Q

reciprocity of liking

A

we are usually attracted to people who like us

200
Q

aesthetic appeal

A

we find their appearance pleasant (rewarding) to look at (“eye candy”)

201
Q

“what is beautiful is good” stereotype/ halo effect

A

the belief that physically attractivepeople possess other socially desirable traits as well

202
Q

social profit

A

being friends with someone who is highly attractive may enhance other people’s perceptions of how attractive YOU are perceived as being (eg. radiation and contrast effects)

203
Q

radiation effect

A

a person of average attraciveness tends to be rated as more attractive when they are paired with someone who is highly attractive (however, evaluations ofowmen do not seem to be affected bythe looks of their male partner)

204
Q

contrast effect

A

a person of average attractiveness tends to be rated as more attracive after others have just seen an unattractive person of the same sex, but is rated as less attractive after others have jsut seen a highly attractive person

205
Q

why physical attractiveness is a determinant of attraction (3)

A

(1) rewarding, (2) what is beautiful is good stereotype and (3) social profit (eg. radiation, contrast effect)

206
Q

baby-faced facial features

A

large eyes, small nose, full lips and a small chin

207
Q

mature facial features (women)

A

prominent cheekbones, high eyebrows, large pupils and a big smile

208
Q

mature facial features (men)

A

small eyes, broad forehead, thin lips and a large jaw

209
Q

based on the evolutionary perspective, what are hetero men attracted to?

A

women whose facial features and bodily appearance suggests youth, health and fertility

210
Q

based on the evolutionary perspective, what are hetero women attracted to?

A

men whose facial features and bodily characteristics suggest maturity and physical strength

211
Q

personal ads from mid-western american newspaper study

A

offering: women were more likely than men to be offering physical attractiveness, wehreas men were more likely than women to be offering material resources
seeking: men were more likely that women to be seeking a physically attractive partner whereas women were more likely than men to be seeking amterial resources

212
Q

“costs” of being beautiful (2)

A

(1) are people being nice to me just because they think i’m good looking or do they genuinely like me for who I am? and (2) pressure to maintain one’s physical appearance

213
Q

not old do we perceive attractive people as more likeable, we perceive ___ people as more ____

A

likeable; attractive

214
Q

intimacy

A

feelings of closeness, affection, connectedness with another person

215
Q

example of liking (type of love)

A

friendship

216
Q

example of fatuous love

A

whirlwind courtship; puppy love

217
Q

example of empty love

A

stagnant or empty-shell marriage

218
Q

example of romantic love

A

summer love affair or holidy fling

219
Q

example of companionate love

A

committed marriage

220
Q

Hatfield and Bersheid’s love scale (2)

A

passionate love (a state of (1) intense longing for complete union with another person and (2) comanionate love (the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply entwined

221
Q

Ainsworth: percentage of white, American, middle class children with different attachment styles

A

secure: 65%, avoidant: 23%

anxious/ambivalent/preoccupied: 12%

222
Q

Hazan and Shaver: percentage of adults with different attachment styles

A

secure: 56%
avoidant: 25%
anxious/ambivalent/preoccupied: 19%

223
Q

types of avoidant attachment (Bartholomew) (2)

A

(1) fearful-avoidant and (2)dismissing avoidant

224
Q

avoidant attachment style

A

parent is generally unresponsive or even rejecting in times of need or distress

225
Q

categories of helping (4)

A

(1) casual, (2) substantial, (3) emotional and (4) emergency

226
Q

casual helping

A

lending someone a pen, holding a door open

227
Q

substantial helping

A

helping a friend move

228
Q

emotional helping

A

providing a listening ear or shoulder to cry on

229
Q

emergency helping

A

assisting a stranger after a car accident or a mugging

230
Q

famous example of bystander effect and diffusion of responsibility

A

Kitty Genovese

231
Q

bystander effect

A

individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present that if the person who could help is alone

232
Q

barrier to helping at step 1

A

being preoccupied/ distracted (texting, in a hurry, intoxicated)

233
Q

urban overload hypothesis

A

people who live in big cities get used to blocking out all kinds of stimuli an dso many fail to notice an event

234
Q

Darley and Batson’s (1973) seminary student study

A

early: 63%
on time: 45%
late: 10%

235
Q

compliance

A

changes in behaviour that are elicited by direct requests

236
Q

how do we get other people to do what we want them to do? (5)

A

(1) do them a favour first so they owe you, (2) ask nicely, (3) guilt them, (4) bribe them and (5) blackmail them

237
Q

foot-in-the-door technique

A

the tendency for people who have already agreed to a small request to subsequently agree to a larger request

238
Q

foot-in-the-door study

A

asked if they can put up a large “drive carefully” sign in their front yard (17% said no); asked to put up a small “be a safe driver” window sticker (almost everyone agreed); followed 2 weeks later by a request about putting up the larger sign ag (76% agreed this time)

239
Q

why does the foot-in-the-door technique work?

A

principle of consistency

240
Q

door-in-the-face technique

A

begin by asking a large, unreasonable request (one you know will be turned down), and then ask for a smaller request (seems more reasonable)

241
Q

example of door-in-the-face

A

“would you be willing to volunteer two hours a week in a program for delinquent children for the next two years?” (no one said yes); “would you be willing to donate two hours of your time to take a group of delinquent children on a trip to the zoo this weekend? (50% said yes)

242
Q

why does the door-in-the-face technique work?

A

(1) norm of reciprocity and (2) self-presentation theory and (3) free-gift technique

243
Q

norm of reciprocity

A

if you’re willing to compromise to be reasonable, I will try to as well

244
Q

self-presentation theory

A

we like to present ourselves in a way that makes us look good, generous… etc

245
Q

free-gift technique

A

giving someone somethign for free before making a request

246
Q

that’s-not-all technique

A

the requester begins with an inflated request, and the, BEFORE the person has a chance to respond, the requester decreases the apparent size of the request by offering either a discount or a bonus

247
Q

deadline technique

A

people are told they only have a limited time to take advantage of some offer

248
Q

why does the deadline technique work?

A

principle of scarcity

249
Q

principle of scarcity

A

we tink we’re getting a rare deal

250
Q

step 2 of helping in an emergency: study

A

staged sidewalk fight between man and woman
condition 1: “get away, i don’t know why I ever married you!” (19% intervened)
condition 2: “get away, I don’t know you” (65% intervened)

251
Q

barriers to helping at step 2 (2)

A

(1) ambiguity of the situation and (2) pluralistic ignorance

252
Q

step 3 of helping in an emergency: beach study (Moriarty 1972)

A

confedorate arrives to beach and leaves stuff on sand; a second assistant comes to steal their radio
“watch stuff” condition: 95% tried to stop their
“do you have a light?” “no”; leaves to find one: 20% tried to stop theif

253
Q

barrier to helping at step 3

A

diffusion of responsibility

254
Q

step 4, deciding to help, can be done in what two ways?

A

(1) directly or (2) indirectly

255
Q

barrier to helping at step 4

A

lacking in competence

256
Q

barriers to helping at step 5 (2)

A

(1) audience inhibition and (2) costs outweigh benefits

257
Q

audience inhibition

A

fear of looking foolish in front of people stops people from helping

258
Q

ways to get help in an emergency (3)

A

(1) identify on eperson in the crown (diffusion of responsiblity), (2) clearly label situation as an EMERGENCY (ambiguity) and (3) give instructions on how to help (lack of competence?)

259
Q

other factors that influence helping (3)

A

(1) mood, (2) environmental factors and (3) personality factors

260
Q

influence of negative mood on helping: Roman Catholic study

A

roman catholics were solicited for a donation on the way in OR out of confession; those going IN donated more (because of guilt)

261
Q

influence of negative mood on helping: camera study

A

participant asked to take picture with expensive camera
conditon 1: doesn’t work and person blames her (guilt)
condition 2: works (no guilt)
participant then saw assistant with hole in bag losing candy
55% in conditon 1 helped and 15% in condition 2

262
Q

influence of positive mood on helping: coin study

A

people going to get picutres in a photo booth either found a “gift” coin left behind or didn’t; when put in a situation where they could help, 87% who had gotten the coin did and only 5% who didn’t get the coin did

263
Q

good mood effect

A

people are more likely to help when in a good mood (limitation: the task is too difficult/unpleasant or its too long after the happiness inducing experience)

264
Q

compared to non-helpers, helpers are: (4)

A

(1) high in empathy, (2) high in social responsibility, (3) low in egocentrism and (4) have an internal locus of control

265
Q

people high in social responsibility…

A

are more likely to believe that everyone should do whatever they can to help others in need

266
Q

egocentrism

A

being wrapped up in one’s own life

267
Q

internal locus of control

A

believe they are in charge of their own destiny and they can make a real difference

268
Q

who gets help when in need? (3)

A

(1) physically attractive people, (2) those who are similar to the helper and (3) women

269
Q

who gets help when in need: physical attractiveness: airport study

A

airport travelers find package with grad school application and attached applicant photo
47% of applications with highly attractive people were mailed back
35% of applications with unattractive people were mailed back

270
Q

what is one explanation for why women are more likely to receive help?

A

men are less likely to ASK for help

271
Q

altruism

A

helping someone without expectation of personal gain

272
Q

egoism

A

helping because it brings internal or external reward to the helper

273
Q

low ball technique

A

person secures agreement with a request but the increases size of requires with hidden costs

274
Q

low ball technique study

A

students told about psychology experiment they could do for extra credit
condition 1: told up front in starts at 7am (25% volunteered and showed up on time)
condition 2: only told the start time AFTER they volunteered (55% volunteered and nearly all showed up on time)

275
Q

why does the low ball technique work?

A

principle of committment

276
Q

principle of committment

A

sticking to a decision; once decision is made, we justify it and are less likely to change our mind

277
Q

that’s-not-all technique cupcake study

A

condition 1: 75 cents each (40% bought them)

condition 2: $1… but I’ll let you have one for 75 cents (73%)

278
Q

why does the that’s-not-all technique work?

A

norm of reciprocity

279
Q

bait-and-switch technique

A

people are dwarn in with an attracive offer that is not avilable, which is withced to a less attractive offter that IS available

280
Q

why does the bait-and-switch technique work?

A

priciple of committment

281
Q

persuasion

A

deliberately trying to change someone’s attitudes

282
Q

components of persuasion (3)

A

(1) source, (2) message and (3) recepient

283
Q

overheard communicator trick

A

we will be more persuaded if we think the message wasn’t designed for us

284
Q

psychological reactance

A

an unpleasant emotional reaction when someone tries to restict our freedom

Social psychology (3 decks)

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