Social Learning

Question 1

Levels of social learning

Answer 1

• Motivational level: Contagion, social-, response facilitation
• Perceptional level: (Local, stimulus) enhancement
• Associative level: Observational conditioning
• Cognitive level: Forms of imitation and emulation

-> All forms can be explained via associative models!

Question 2

Def. Imitation and Emulation + when imitation?

Answer 2

Imitation
= Learning about and copying others’ behaviour
-> Use same technique as demonstrator

Emulation
= Learning about consequences of demonstrated behaviour
-> Use most efficient technique (might differ from demonstrator’s)

Imitation when condition for emulation not faviourable.

Question 3

Forms of imitation

Answer 3

Vocal imitation

• Copying of sounds, vocalisations
• Within-modality stimulus matching

Action imitation
- Copying of behaviour
- Cross-modal matching
> Correspondance problem (change of perspective)
-> Blindly mimicking vs. intentionally, rationally copying?

Question 4

Forms of emulation

Answer 4

OMR (Object movement re-enactment)

• Learn about what OBJECT does (not demonstrator)
• Reproduce movement of object

Endstate-emulation

• Focus on result or goal (result-/goal-emulation)
• Learn what can be achieved

Question 5

Methods for testing imitation

Answer 5

1. Comparison: Learning group vs. control group (with vs. without demonstrator)
   - Learning group should learn better/faster
   - Exclusion of alternatives (e.g. enhancement) important!
2. 2-action procedure
   - Cross design: 2 diff. beh. lead to same outcome (e.g. hand vs. mouth)
   - Control group for probability of behavioural alternatives!
3. Bidirectional control
   - Manipulandum -> can be moved in 2 directions
   - Additional control for OMR-emulation!
4. “Do-as-I-do”/”imitate!”
   - Trained to copy given behaviours
   - Novel behaviours intersperced
   > How to know whether novel beh. is new? Necessary?

Question 6

Methods for testing emulation

Answer 6

• “Negative” outcome / alternatives in imitation experiments
• “Ghost control” (object moves)
• Partial demonstration (result only)
• Unsuccessful demonstration (intention, accident)
• Necessary vs. unneccessary action (faithful copying)
• “Do-as-I-do” with objects

Question 7

Evidence for emulation

Answer 7

OMR
Chimps vs. 2-year-old children
- Raking techniques
> Children imitate, chimps emulate

End-state emulation or affordance learning
- Keas: Artificial fruit variant (3 locks, 2 opening techniques)
> Do not just copy opening technique

• Chimps vs. human children:
  > Unnecessary + necessary (rewarded) action
  > Children over-imitate (copy both actions), chimps emulate (only copy necessary action)

Question 8

Tradition

- Criteria + evidence

Answer 8

• Local behavioural variant shown by some/most members of a group
• Constant over generations
• Maintained through social learning

Alternative: Population differences due to environmental differences.

Evidence: Rats maintain food preference over 4 years despite of demonstrator replacement

Question 9

Culture

- Def. + criteria/methods

Answer 9

Diff. definitions:
- Multiple traditions
- Accumulation of modification over time
- May rest on certain forms of:
> Social learning (imitation)
> Social learning-teaching comb.
> Higher-order intentionality

Question 10

Evolutionary and ecological relevance of social transmission, tradition and culture

Answer 10

• Non-genetic inheritance system

- Niche construction

Question 11

Examples of

a. Tradition
b. Culture

Answer 11

a. Milk bottle opening in British tits,
Potato-washing in Japanese macaques (proto-culture)
c. Tool use in chimps

Question 12

What is social facilitation?

Answer 12

Change in the motivation to perform a given behaviour facilitates individual learning
> Social learning facilitates individual learning

Example: Fear reduction in presence of calm conspecific facilitates individual learning in rats.