Social learning

Question 1

Introduction: Learning theories:

Answer 1

1. Rigorous research methods made laboratory studies of children possible
2. Learning theory: American theory – also
   known as behaviorism
3. Later expansion to Social Learning Theory

Question 2

Who are the famous researchers in the field of learning theories?

Answer 2

1. John Watson

2. Burrhus Federic Skinner

Question 3

John Watson:

Answer 3

1. 1913 „declaration of behaviorism“:
   - Goal of psychology should be to predict and control overt behavior, not to describe and explain conscious states
2. Psychologists could point to physical events (behaviors) as the content of their science and measure them objectively
3. Belief in great influence of the environment on development

Question 4

What are the two types of learning according to John Watson?

Answer 4

1. Classical conditioning

2. Operant conditioning

Question 5

Classical conditioning:

Answer 5

• Inspired by work of Iwan Pawlow to learning in animals

1. UCS (food) -> UR (saliava)
2. New stimulus (clock) before UCS -> CS
3. after repeating: CS (clock) -> CR (saliva)

Question 6

Which famous experiment is related to the idea of classical conditioning?

Answer 6

Little Albert

Question 7

B. F. Skinner:

Answer 7

• Operant conditioning begins with a
behavior that a child spontaneously produces
1. Certain behavior (e.g., smiling) will be reinforced (e.g., play with baby)
2. If sequences occurs repeatedly  becomes more frequent
3. Environment changes frequency of behavior by strengthening or weakening associations
4. Changes form of behavior by shaping – by gradually reinforcing a more complex behavior

Question 8

What are some limitations of learning theories?

Answer 8

1. Learning theory could not explain acquisition of a skill as complex as language
2. Evidence suggested that biological predispositions limit or modify learning
3. Information processing, Piaget’s theory etc. provided more cognitive explanations of behaviour
4. 1. learning as a change in knowledge rather than as a change in probability of response

Question 9

Introduction: Social learning theory:

Answer 9

1. Beginning 1930s at Yale University
2. Combination of two traditions: learning theory and psychoanalysis
3. 1. Concepts from Freudian theory: e.g., aggression, identification, conscience formation
4. 2. Sought explanations for behavior in principles of stimulus-response learning which could be observed
5. 1940s and 1950s: studies on imitation, cross-cultural influences on personality, identification, child-rearing practices-> focus on socialization
6. Turned to imitation as a powerful learning process for socialization

Question 10

(Social learning theory) Albert Bandura:

Answer 10

1. Model learning: children acquire new behaviors by watching a model who is reinforced
2. Great influence on developmental psychology in 1960s and 1970s
3. Observational learning as a more general process of acquiring information from other people
4. By observing various models, children can combine and cognitively organize these behaviors to form more complex behaviors

Question 11

(Social learning theory) General orientation to the theory:

Answer 11

1. Centrality of observational learning
2. A causal model involving an environment-person-behavior system
3. Cognitive contributions to learning
4. Self-efficacy

Question 12

(Social learning theory) Observational learning:

Answer 12

1. Emphasis on environmental, nonbiological influences on behavior
2. Focus on children as individuals acquiring competencies and skills
3. Observational learning explains how children quickly learn complex new behaviors
4. Children learn through abstract modeling – abstracting a general rule
   from observing specific behaviors
5. Reinforcement or punishment is not necessary for learning to occur

Question 13

(Social learning theory) What is a famous experiment by Bandura related to this theory?

Answer 13

Bobo doll experiment

Question 14

Bandura’s model of learning includes three components:

Answer 14

1. Biological and psychological characteristics of the person (P)
2. The person`s behavior (B)
3. The environment (E)
   • Triadic reciprocal causation: interdependence of factors, each influences the other

Question 15

(Social learning theory) Three types of environment which vary in the child`s active contribution (Bandura, 1997) :

Answer 15

1. Imposed: no control of presence but how they construe it (e.g., school)
2. Selected: part of potential environment that people actually experience; those which are selected (e.g. certain school courses)
3. Created: construct through behavior of children (e.g., watching TV vs. Playing with friends)

–>Children actively contribute to their own development

Question 16

(Social learning theory) Outline of cognitive processes underlying observational learning (Bandura, 1986):

Answer 16

1. Attentional processes
2. Retention processes
3. Production processes
4. Motivational processes

Question 17

(Social learning theory) Self-efficacy and agency:

Answer 17

1. people`s perception of their competence in dealing with their environment and exercising influence over events that affect their lives
   - Affects all types of behavior – academic, social, recreational
   - Self-efficacy essential for starting a task and persisting
2. Infants develop sense of personal agency, that they can cause effects in their environment ->self-efficacy
3. Children gradually construct their self-knowledge about their efficacy and its sources:
4. 1. Own success or failure of similar attempts
5. 2. Similar others fail or succeed
6. 3. Encouragement or persuasion of others
7. 4. Affective states
8. 5. Self-efficacy affects how resilient children are to adversity

Question 18

(Social learning theory) According to social learning theory, development occurs due to:

Answer 18

1. Physical maturation
2. Experience with the social world causes development through observational learning, construction of general concepts and rules
3. Cognitive development: change in cognitive skills makes observational learning more flexible and enduring

Question 19

(Social learning theory) What is the basic nature of humans? (Mechanistic view, organismic view or contextualism)

Answer 19

1. Learning theories example of mechanistic view of human behavior
2. However, does not represent modern social learning theory
3. 1. Elements of organismic (e.g., self-organizing) and contextual (e.g., context matters) worldviews
4. 2. View of humans as both rational and irrational (focus on motivation)

Question 20

(Social learning theory) Is development qualitative or quantitative?

Answer 20

1. Development primarily as a process of quantitative change:
2. 1. Multitude of short-term changes
3. 2. Also somewhat qualitative change when symbolic representations of other’s behavior becomes possible
4. Attitude towards stages: Bandura considers search for stages counterproductive

Question 21

(Social learning theory) How do nature and nurture contribute to development?

Answer 21

1. Emphasis on nurture

2. Acknowledgement that biology can constrain learning

Question 22

(Social learning theory) What is it that develops?

Answer 22

1. Few universal behaviors proposed, as dependent on what environment has to offer for learning
2. More investigation of process rather than content
3. No universal endpoint to development

Question 23

(Social learning theory) Evaluation: Strengths:

Answer 23

1. Focus on situational influences on behavior
2. 1. Explains specificity of knowledge and behaviors
3. 2. Addresses emotional and motivational aspects
4. Testability
5. 1. Among most testable theories in psychology
6. 2. interest in observable behavior

Question 24

(Social learning theory) Evaluation: Weaknesses:

Answer 24

1. Inadequate account of cognitive development
   1.1. Processes of social learning the same at all ages?
   1.2. Dev. theory should specify what
   underlies different abilities, e.g. cognitive development
2. Inadequate description of development in natural settings

Question 25

(Social learning theory) Contemporary research: Imitation:

Answer 25

1. Present early on, perhaps even at a few days of age
2. Imitation paradox: sometimes selective (only important steps), sometimes overimitation (imitating everything)
3. Imitation plays important role in cultural learning
4. More imitation of others in their social group
5. Children with autism spectrum disorders imitate less