Social Influence Flashcards
1
Q
Define Conformity
A
A Change in a person’s behaviour or opinions as a result of real or imagined pressure from a person or group (Aronson 2011)
2
Q
Define Internalisation
A
The deepest type of conformity where we take on majority view as we accept it is correct. It leads to permanent change in behaviour privately and publicly
3
Q
Define Identification
A
Moderate conformity where we act in the same way as a group as we value it and want to be part of it. However, we don’t necessarily agree with everything the majority believes
4
Q
Define Compliance
A
A superficial, temporary type of conformity where we outwardly go along with the majority view but privately disagree. The change in behaviour lasts as long as the group is present
5
Q
Define Informational Social Influence
A
An explanation of conformity that says we agree with the opinion of the majority as we believe it is correct and we accept it as we want to be correct also. This may lead to internalisation
6
Q
Define Normative Social Influence
A
An explanation of conformity that says we agree with the opinion of the majority because we want to be accepted, gain social approval and be liked. This may lead to compliance
7
Q
Who suggested the three types of Conformity?
A
Herbert Kelman (1958)
8
Q
Who is responsible for the two-process theory of conformity? Describe the theory
A
Deutsch and Gerard (1955)
People conform because they need to be right (ISI) or need to be liked (NSI)
9
Q
When is ISI most likely to occur?
A
In new situations, situations with ambiguity, crisis and where someone may be regarded as an expert
10
Q
When is NSI most likely to occur?
A
In situations with strangers where rejection is concerned and with people we know such as friends
11
Q
AO3: What is the research support for ISI?
A
- Lucas (2006) asked students to answer maths problems that were easy and hard
- Greater conformity to incorrect answers when questions were hard
- Shows people conform when they do not know information
12
Q
AO3: What are the individual differences of NSI?
A
- People who are less concerned with social approval are less affected by NSI
- McGhee and Teevan (1967) found students in need of approval were more likely to conform
- Shows desire to be liked underlies conformity and individual differences exist
13
Q
AO3: How might ISI and NSI work together?
A
- Two-process model states one or the other
- Both processes may be involved
- E.g dissenters reduce conformity
- They may reduce NSI (dissenter is social support) or reduce ISI (alternative source of information)
- Casts doubt over two-process theory and only one process causing conformity
14
Q
AO3: What is the research support for NSI?
A
- Asch (1951) found P’s went along with wrong answer because others did
- When asked why, they said self-conscious feelings and fear of disapproval
- When writing answers, conformity fell to 12.5%
- Show people conform to fit in and gain approval
15
Q
Define Group Size in Asch’s Study
A
Asch increased the size of the group by adding more confederates to increase the majority size. Conformity increased with group size only up to a certain point, levelling off after 3
16
Q
Define Unanimity in Asch’s study
A
The extent to which all the members of a group agree. In Asch’s study, the majority was unanimous when all the confederates selected the same comparison line. This produced the most conformity
17
Q
Define Task Difficulty in Asch’s Study
A
Asch’s line-judging task is more difficult when it becomes harder to work out the correct answer. Conformity increases as P’s assume the majority is more likely to be correct
18
Q
Give the Procedure of Asch’s study
A
- P’s see a standard line and three comparison lines
- Asked which comparison line matched with the standard line
- 123 American male undergraduates
- Each P tested with 6-8 confederates
- On the first few trials, all confederates gave right answers
- Confederates gave wrong answer on 12/18 critical trials
19
Q
Give the Findings of Asch’s study
A
- P gave the wrong answer 36.8% of the time
- 25% did not conform at all
- 75% conformed at least once
- When interviewed, they said they conformed to avoid rejection (NSI)
20
Q
Name Asch’s Variations
A
Group size, Unanimity and Task difficulty
21
Q
What did changing the group size do to Asch’s study?
A
- With three confederates, conformity rose to 31.8%
- Addition of further confederates made little difference
- Small or large majorities not needed, just 3
22
Q
What did changing the task difficulty do to Asch’s study?
A
- Made comparison and standard lines similar
- Conformity increased suggesting ISI plays a greater role in harder tasks as it is more ambiguous
23
Q
What did changing unanimity do to Asch’s study?
A
- Confederate who disagreed with others
- This presence reduced conformity by 25% compared to a complete unanimous decision
- Presence of a dissenter allows P to behave more independently
- Influence of majority depends on unanimity
24
Q
AO3: Why may Asch’s study lack temporal validity?
A
- Perrin and Spencer repeated task in 1980 with UK engineering students
- 1 conformed out of 396 trials
- Engineering students may be more confident OR
- 1950s were a conformist time so made sense to stick to social norms
- Hence is not a fundamental feature of human behaviour and lacks temporal validity
25
AO3: Why is an artificial task a problem with Asch's study?
- P's knew they were in a study (demand characteristics)
- Trivial task and so no reason not to conform
- Groups did not resemble everyday groups
- Fiske (2014) said groups were not groupy
- Limitation as not generalisable, especially when consequences of conformity are more serious
26
AO3: Why is there limited application of Asch's findings?
- Only men tested
- Neto suggested women are more likely to conform due to more concern about social relationships
- USA is an individualistic culture rather than China etc
- Conformity sometimes higher than what Asch found but results only generalisable to American men
27
AO3: What are the ethical issues with Asch's research?
- P's deceived and embarrassment could cause psychological harm
- Ethical costs should be weighed against benefits of research
- Debrief given
28
Define Social Roles
The parts that people play in everyday life. Examples include: parent, teacher, child, student. They are accompanied by expectations of what is appropriate for each role
29
What was the aim of the SPE?
To answer the following:
Do prison guards behave brutally because they have sadistic personalities or is it the situation that causes the behaviour
30
Give the procedure of Zimbardo's SPE
- Mock prison at SU
- Students volunteered and emotionally stable ones selected
- Random assignment to role of guards or prisoners
- Realism increased by house arrest and strip search
- Prisoners had numbers and uniforms
- Guards enforced rules, had uniforms and told they had complete power
31
Give the findings of Zimbardo's SPE
- Guards behaviour eventually became a threat to mental and physical health so stopped after 6/14 days
- Prisoners rebelled and shouted/swore
- Guards harassed the prisoners and punished even the smallest misdemeanour
- Prisoners became subdued and depressed after rebellion
- 3 prisoners were released due to psychological disturbance
32
What are the conclusions for the SPE?
- Revealed the power of the situation to influence behaviour
| - Guards, prisoners and researchers all conformed
33
AO3: Why does the SPE have ethical issues?
- Zimbardo had two roles: superintendent and researcher
- Would not let a P leave prison
- Denied the right to withdraw and subjected to more harm
34
AO3: Why does the SPE have good internal validity?
- Control over some variables such as selection of P's
- Emotionally stable P's randomly assigned
- Ruled out individual differences, but prisoners and guards still behaved differently
- Hence behaviour influenced by the situation
- Increases internal validity and confidence in conclusions
35
AO3: Why may Zimbardo's conclusion be over-stated/exaggerated?
- Fromm (1973) accused Zimbardo of exaggerating power of the situation
- Minimised dispositional factors (personality)
- E.g Only one third of guards acted brutally, one third kept the rules enforced and one third helped prisoners
- The difference between guard behaviour showed that they were able to exercise right and wrong regardless of the situational pressures
36
Define Obedience
A form of social influence in which an individual follows a direct order. The person issuing the order is usually a figure of authority who has the power to punish when obedient behaviour is not forthcoming
37
What was the aim of Milgram's procedure?
Why did the German population follow the orders of Hitler? Were Germans different?
38
Give the procedure of Milgram's research
- 40 Male P's through adverts (paid $4.50)
- 20 - 50 y/o with jobs unskilled to professional
- P always teacher and confederate teacher
- Teacher gave a shock at every wrong answer through to 450v
- Learner pounded on wall at 300/315 then was silent for the remainder of the experiment
- Silence was to be treated as a wrong answer
- The experimenter was also present and used prods
39
What were the prods of Milgram's research?
- Please go on
- Experiment requires you to continue
- Essential you continue
- You have no other choice, you must go on
40
What were the findings of Milgram's research?
- No P stopped below 300v
- 12.5% stopped at 300v
- 65% continued to 450v
- P's showed extreme tension (three had seizures)
- Predicted only 3% would shock at 450v so results unexpected
- All P's debriefed, 84% claimed to be glad to take part
41
AO3: Why may Milgram's research have low internal validity?
- Orne + Holland argued P's guessed that the electric shocks were not real hence was not measuring what was intended
- Perry (2013) confirmed this and listened to tapes of P's expressing doubt about the shocks
- Sheridan + King (1972) conducted similar study shocking puppies (real shocks)
- Males (54%) and females (100%) delivered fatal shock
- Suggests effects in Milgram's study are genuine as people behaved the same with real shocks
42
AO3: Why does Milgram's research have good external validity?
- First glance, lacks external validity due to lab
- Central feature was between P and authority figure
- This accurately reflected real life situations
- E.g Hofling (1966) studied nurses and found levels of obedience to unjustified demands of doctors were high (21 out of 22)
- Results are valuable and can be generalised
43
AO3: Why does Milgram's research have ethical issues?
- Baumrind (1964) was critical of Milgram
- Deception
- Allocation was not random
- Electric shocks not real
- Damage of reputation of psychologists due to betrayal of trust
44
AO3: What is an alternative explanation of Milgram's research?
- SLT claims obedience lies in identification
- P's obeyed as they identified with the experimenter
- When obedience fell, it was because P's identified less with experimenter and more with victim
- Haslam + Reicher (2012) studied behaviour of P's and the fact they quit after the fourth prod was used (the only prod demanding obedience)
45
AO3: What did Mandel conclude about Milgram's findings?
- Milgram's findings important
- Relevance to explaining the Holocaust is overstated
- Focus on obedience ignores other factors such as racism
- This obedience explanation can be used as an alibi to exonerate perpetrators of the Holocaust
46
Define situational variables (Milgram)
In his research, Milgram identified several factors that he believed influenced the level of obedience shown by Participants. They are all related to the external circumstances rather than the personalities of the Participants
47
Define proximity (obedience)
The physical closeness or distance of an authority figure to the person they are giving an order to. This also refers to the physical closeness of the teacher to the learner in Milgram's research
48
Define location (obedience)
The place where an order is issued. The relevant factor that influences obedience is the status or prestige associated with the location
49
Define uniform (obedience)
People in positions of authority often have a specific outfit that is symbolic of their authority, for example police officers and judges. This indicates to the rest of us who is entitled to expect obedience
50
What was the baseline obedience rate of Milgram's experiment?
65%
51
What were the three proximity variations of Milgram's research and what were the obedience rates of these variations?
- Teacher and learner in same room = 40%
- Teacher forces learner's hand on to plate = 30%
- Experimenter gives order by phone = 20.5%
52
What was the location variation of Milgram's research and what was the obedience rate for this variation?
Change of location to a run down office = 47.5%
53
What was the uniform variation of Milgram's research and what was the obedience rate for this variation?
Experimenter played by a member of the public (no uniform) = 20%
54
AO3: What is the research support for uniform in Milgram's research?
- Bickman (1974) had three confederates dress as milkman, jacket and tie and security guard
- People twice as likely to obey security guard when compared to jacket and tie
- Supports Milgram's conclusion that uniform conveys authority and produces obedience
55
AO3: Why does Milgram's research have cross-cultural validity?
- Miranda et al (1980) replicated the experiment and found over 90% of Spanish students obeyed
- Milgram's conclusion hence applies not just to American males
- However Smith and Bond (1998) made the point that replications had occurred in Western individualistic cultures
- Premature to conclude Milgram's findings apply to everyone
56
AO3: Why is it a strength that Milgram had good control over variables?
- Systematically changed one at a time
- Can identify cause and effect
- Good internal validity
57
Define agentic state
A mental state where we feel no personal responsibility for our behaviour because we believe ourselves to be acting for an authority figure. This frees us from the demands of our consciences and allows us to obey even a destructive authority figure
58
Define legitimacy of authority
An explanation for obedience which suggests that we are more likely to obey people who we perceive to have authority over us. This authority is justified by the individuals position of power within a social hierarchy
59
What is the autonomous state?
A state where someone is free to behave according to their own principles and therefore feels a sense of responsibility for their own actions
60
What is the agentic shift?
The shift from autonomy to agency. Milgram suggested this occurs when a person perceives someone as a figure of authority as they have a higher position in a social hierarchy. They still feel high anxiety
61
Define binding factors
Aspects of a situation that allow a person to ignore or minimise the damaging effect of their behaviour and thus reduce moral strain. Examples include denial and shifting of responsibility
62
Give the two social-psychological factors of obedience
Agentic state and legitimacy of authority
63
What did Milgram argue that sustained the agentic state?
Binding factors
64
Why do people obey legitimacy of authority?
Society agrees authoritative figures must be allowed to exercise social power over other as this allows society to function smoothly
65
Why may legitimacy of authority be destructive?
Leaders and people in positions of power may use their legitimate powers for destructive purposes
66
AO3: What is the research support for the agentic state?
- Blass and Schmitt (2001) showed film of Milgram's study to students
- Asked to identify who was responsible for harm to learner
- Students blamed experimenter rather than P
- Students also indicated experimenter had legitimate and expert authority
- Supports both explanations
67
AO3: Why does the agentic state have a limited explanation?
- Does not explain many findings
- Why didn't some P's obey Milgram
- In Hofling's study, nurses should have felt anxiety in a destructive process but did not
- Agentic shift can only account for some instances of obedience
68
AO3: What are the cultural differences of legitimacy of authority?
- Strength as it is a useful account for cultural differences
- Countries obedience rates differ
- Kilham and Mann (1974) replicated Milgram in Australia and found 16% obedience
- Mantell (1971) replicated Milgram in Germany and found 85% obedience
- Shows that some countries have more legitimate authority, reflecting different societies
- Cross cultural research increases validity
69
Define dispositional explanation
Any explanation of behaviour that highlights the importance of the individuals personality
70
Define authoritarian personality
A type of personality that Adorno argued was especially susceptible to obeying people in authority. Such individuals are also thought to be submissive to those of higher status and dismissive of inferiors
71
Outline Adorno's procedure
- Investigated causes of obedient personality and unconscious attitudes to racial groups
- 2000 middle class white Americans
- F - Scale used to measure authoritarian personality
72
Outline Adorno's findings
- Authoritarian scores were people who identified with strong people and contemptuous of the weak
- Conscious of status and no grey area
- Excessive respect to those higher
73
What are the characteristics of an authoritarian personality?
- Obedient and submissive to authority
- Contempt for those with inferior status
- Conventional views on sex, race and gender
- Inflexible with no grey area
74
What is the origin of the authoritarian personality?
- Harsh parenting with strict discipline and conditional love
- This creates resentment and hostility
- Fear displaced onto others perceived as weak (scapegoating)
- Psychodynamic explanation
75
AO3: What is the research support for the authoritarian personality?
- Milgram interview fully obedient P's with high F-scale scores
- Correlation but not causation
- Possible third factor e.g low education (Hyman and Sheatsley 1954)
76
AO3: Why does the authoritarian personality have a limited explanation?
- Explanation of individual personality cannot account for a whole population
- E.g Germans before the war were obedient but unlikely to all possess authoritarian personality
- Not a likely explanation
- Social identity theory may be more suitable and that Germans identified with Nazi's
77
AO3: What are the methodological problems with Adorno's research?
- Greenstein (1969) described the F-scale a comedy of methodological errors
- All items worded in the same direction
- Measures acquiescence bias instead
- Low internal validity
78
Define resistance to social influence
Refers to the ability of people to withstand social pressure to conform to majority/obey authority. Influenced by both situational and dispositional factors
79
Define social support
The presence of people who resist pressures to conform or obey who help others to do the same. They act as models to show that resistance is possible
80
Define locus of control
Refers to the sense we each have about what directs events in our life. Internals believe they are responsible for what happens to them whereas externals believe it is mainly a matter of luck or other outside forces
81
How does social support interact with conformity?
- Reduces conformity when dissenter present (Asch)
| - However, dissent not long lasting when social support becomes absent again
82
How does social support interact with obedience?
- Pressure to obey reduced is disobeyer present
- Milgram saw a drop of 65% to 10% when P was joined by disobedient confederate
- Free to act on own conscience
83
What is the continuum of locus of control?
A scale/continuum with high internal LOC and high external LOC at either side. People are not simply external or internal
84
Why can people with an internal LOC resist social influence?
If a person takes more responsibility for their actions, they are more likely to base decisions off of their own beliefs and resist pressure from others. They are also more confident and do not feel the need for social approval
85
AO3: What is the research support for resistance to conformity due to social support?
- Allen and Levine (1971) found conformity decreased with a dissenter in Asch style study
- Occurred when dissenter wore glasses and claimed he had bad vision (obvs couldn't see)
- People can be free from pressure of group and do not just follow what someone else says
86
AO3: What is the research support for resistance to obedience due to social support?
- Gamson (1982) found higher levels of resistance than Milgram
- P's were in groups
- 29 out of 33 P's rebelled showing peer support is linked to greater resistance
87
What is the research support for LOC?
- Holland (1967) repeated Milgram's study and determined whether P's were internal or external
- 37% of internals and 23% of externals did not continue to high shock
- Internals showed greater resistance providing validity to LOC explanation
88
What is the contradictory research for LOC?
- Twenge (2004) studied from 1960 to 2002
- Over time people become more resistant but more external
- If resistance was linked then we would expect people to become more internal
- Challenges link between LOC and resistance but may also show a changing society
89
Why does LOC have a limited explanation?
- Rotter (1982) points out LOC only comes into play in novel situations
- Previous experience in familiar situations is more important
- Overlooked and hence cannot account for all resistance
90
Define minority influence
A form of social influence where a minority of people persuade others to adopt their beliefs, attitudes or behaviours. Leads to internalisation and private attitudes are changed
91
Define consistency
When the minority keeps the same beliefs both over time and between all members. Effective as it draws attention and makes people question their own views
92
Define commitment
When the minority demonstrates dedication. Effective as it shows the minority is not acting out of self-interest
93
Define flexibility
Relentless consistency could be counter productive if it is seen as unbending or unreasonable. Effective as minority can show compromise
94
Outline Moscovici's procedure
- Female P's shown 36 shades of blue with two confederates
- Confederates answered 36 green for first part
- Confederates answered 24 green 12 blue for second part (inconsistent)
- Control with no confederates
95
Outline Moscovici's findings
- 8% said slides were green with consistent confederates
| - 1% said slides were green with inconsistent confederates
96
Distinguish between synchronic and diachronic consistency
```
Synchronic = Consistency between the group
Diachronic = Consistency over time
```
97
What did Nemeth (1986) argue about flexibility?
No flexibility is dogmatic and is off putting to the majority. Members of the minority should adapt and accept valid counterarguments
98
Define augmentation principle
When a person performs an action when there are known constraints, the motive for acting must be stronger
99
How does the augmentation principle draw attention to commitment in minority influence?
It makes people question their own views as people partake in dangerous activities to demonstrate their commitment
100
AO3: What is the research support for consistency in minority influence?
- Moscovici's study showed a consistent majority had a greater effect than inconsistency
- Wood (1994) carried out a meta-analysis and found consistent minorities were more influential
- Consistency important in minority influence
101
AO3: What is the research support for depth of thought in minority influence?
- Martin (2003) gave P's message supporting a viewpoint and measured support
- One group exposed to agreeing majority and another, agreeing minority
- Then exposed to conflicting views
- P's less willing to change if heard from a minority
- Suggests minority message more deeply processed
- Supports minority influence processes
102
AO3: What is the problem with artificial tasks in minority influence?
- Artificial tasks far removed from how minorities actually change majority view
- Real life situations such as jury are more important
- Findings lack external valdiity
103
AO3: What is the research support for internalisation in minority influence?
- Variation of Moscovici study
- P's wrote answer down
- Agreement with minority greater
- Convinced by minority but fear of being considered awkward or radical
104
Define social influence
The process by which individuals and groups change each other's attitudes and behaviours
105
Define social change
This occurs when societies adopt new attitudes and beliefs
106
Give the six steps of social change
```
Drawing attention
Consistency
Deeper processing
Augmentation principle
Snowball effect
Social Cryptomnesia
```
107
Define social cryptomnesia
When people know social change had occurred but do not remember how
108
What is the snowball effect in minority influence
As more and more people accept the minority view, the minority becomes the majority and the new minority who disagrees either conform or obey
109
AO3: What is the research support for normative influences in social change?
- Nolan (2008) investigated whether social influence led to reduction of energy consumption
- Message "most residents reducing energy consumption" hung on doors
- Control different message
- First group reduced energy usage showing conformity leads to social change
110
AO3: Why is minority influence only indirectly effective?
- Social change occurs slowly
- Poses question of do minorities really have an influence
- Nemeth (1986) argues minorities have delayed and indirect effect
- Limitation as effects are fragile and role in social change is limited
111
AO3: Why may the role of deeper processing occur with majority views instead of minority views?
- Mackie (1987) disagrees with Moscovici about minority causing deeper processing
- We like to think people share our views
- When majority don't, we are forced to think long and hard about their views
- Process of minority influence challenged and lowers validity of Moscovici's theory
112
AO3: What are the barriers to social change?
- Bashir (2013) investigated why people resist social change
- P's did not want to be environmentally friendly due to negative connotations of environmentalists
- Minorities should behave in a way that does not reinforce negative stereotypes
- Strength as advice given
