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Psychology - Paper 1 > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Define coding

A

The format in which information is stored in the various memory stores

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2
Q

Define capacity

A

The amount of information that can be held in a memory store

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3
Q

Define duration

A

The length of time information can be held in memory

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4
Q

Define short-term memory

A

Limited capacity memory store. Coding is acoustic, capacity between 5 and 9 items and duration 18-30 seconds

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5
Q

Define long-term memory

A

Permanent memory store. Coding is mainly semantic, capacity is unlimited and duration is up to a lifetime

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6
Q

What is the research on coding?

A
  • Baddeley (1966) gave different lists of words to four groups:
    Group 1 acoustically similar
    Group 2 acoustically dissimilar
    Group 3 semantically similar
    Group 4 semantically dissimilar
  • Asked to recall in correct order
  • When asked immediately after, worse with acoustically similar
  • When asked after a time interval, worse with semantically similar words
  • Suggests coding semantic in LTM and acoustic in STM
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7
Q

What is the research on capacity?

A
  • Jacobs (1887) measured digit span
  • 4 digits, asked to recall, correct and another digit added
  • Mean digit span was 9.3 and letters 7.3
  • Miller (1956) observed everyday practice and noticed things come in sevens e.g days, music notes
  • Suggests capacity of STM 7 ± 2, but also people could recall 5 letters as best as words by chuninh
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8
Q

What is the research on duration?

A
  • Peterson + Peterson (1959) tested 24 undergrads
  • Given consonant syllable/trigram and number to count back in 3s from to prevent mental rehearsal
  • Each trial asked to stop at 3,6,9,12,15,18 seconds called retention interview
  • As time progresses, recall worse suggesting STM short duration
  • Bahrick (1975) studied 392 P’s from Ohio between 17-74
  • Photo recognition and free recall of names from yearbook
  • P after 15 years 90% accurate in photo recognition, 60% for free recall
  • P after 48 years 70% accurate in photo recognition. 30% for free recall
  • Shows LTM duration very long
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9
Q

AO3: Evaluate Baddeley’s research

A
  • Artificial stimuli
  • Not meaningful to P’s
  • Cannot generalise as does not replicate true everyday life experiences
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10
Q

AO3: Evaluate Jacobs and Millers research

A

Jacobs:
- Conducted long time ago where adequate control lacked
- Results may not be valid due to confounding variables
- However, results have also been confirmed in other studies supporting its validity
Miller:
- Overestimated capacity of STM
- Cowan (2001) reviewed research and concluded capacity of STM 4 chunks
- Lower end of Miller’s estimate more appropriate

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11
Q

AO3: Evaluate Peterson and Peterson and Bahrick’s research

A

Peterson and Peterson:
- Artificial stimulus as consonant syllable do not replicate everyday life
- Lacks external validity
- However, we also try and remember phone numbers so study not totally irrelevant
Bahrick:
- High external validity as real life memories studied
- Meaningless stimuli in LTM studies have showed lower recall (Shepard 1967)
- Confounding research not controlled however e.g P’s may have looked at yearbook over the years

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12
Q

Define multistore model

A

A representation of how memory works in terms of three stores called sensory register, short-term memory and long-term memory. Also describes how information is transferred from one store to the other, how it is remembered and how it is forgotten

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13
Q

Define sensory register

A

The memory stores for each five sense e.g iconic and echoic. The capacity of sensory registers is huge and duration very small (0.5 seconds)

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14
Q

Who proposed the multi store model?

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

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15
Q

Describe how information enters the MSM

A

Stimulus from environment passes into sensory register with high capacity but small duration. Attention is the key process in what causes these stimuli to pass into the memory system

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16
Q

What can happen to information after it is registered by the sensory register?

A
  • Moved into STM where capacity 7 ± 2 items and duration 30 seconds
  • Maintenance rehearsal of information keeps it in STM
  • Prolonged rehearsal passes information into LTM
  • Retrieval causes information to be moved back into STM
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17
Q

AO3: What is the supporting research evidence or the MSM?

A
  • Supported by research that shows STM and LTM different
  • Baddeley (1966) shows coding acoustic in STM and semantic in LTM
  • Glanzer + Cunitz (1966) Primary and recency effect supporting different stores
  • Hence they are different, supporting MSM’s view that two memory stores are separate and independant
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18
Q

AO3: Why could there be more than one type of STM?

A
  • MSM states STM unitary store
  • Evidence from sufferers of amnesia disproves this
  • Shallice and Warrington (1970) studied KF with amnesia
  • Digit span poor when read out but better when he read digits
  • Further study showed there could be another STM store for nonverbal sounds such as noises
  • Limitation as MSM only has one store but other research shows there is at least two
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19
Q

AO3: Why does the rehearsal in the MSM have limited application

A
  • Suggests rehearsal transfers information to LTM
  • People can recall information we did not rehearse e.g swimming and unable to recall rehearsal e.g reading notes
  • Therefore, the role of rehearsal as a means of transferring from STM to LTM is much less important than Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) claimed in their model.
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20
Q

Define episodic memory

A

A long term memory store for personal events including memories of when events occurred, who was present and behaviours involved. Memories are retrieved consciously with effort

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21
Q

Define semantic memory

A

A long term memory store for our knowledge of the world. This includes facts and our knowledge of what words and concepts mean. Memories are retrieved consciously with effort

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22
Q

Define procedural memory

A

A long term memory store for our knowledge of how to do things. This includes our memories of learned skills. We usually recall these memories without making a conscious or deliberate effort

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23
Q

Who proposed the types of LTM and why?

A

Tulving (1985) as he realised MSMs view of LTM too simplistic

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24
Q

AO3: What is the clinical evidence for types of long term memory?

A
  • HM and Clive Wearing
  • Episodic memory impaired due to amnesia but semantic memories unaffected
  • Procedural also intact
  • Support’s Tulving’s view of different types of LTM
  • However, case studies may not generalise well and lack of control
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25
Q

AO3: What is the neuroimaging evidence for types of LTM?

A
  • Brain scan supports different types of LTM in different parts of brain
  • Tulving (1994) got P’s to perform carious tasks while scanning brain with PET scanner
  • Episodic and semantic memory from prefrontal cortex
  • Episodic recalled from right PFC and semantic from left PFC
  • Strength as supports view that there is physical differences in types of LTM
  • Confirmed by other studies supporting validity
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26
Q

AO3: How do the different types of LTM have real life application?

A
  • Being able to identify different LTM allows psychologists to target different memories to better lives
  • Belleville (2006) demonstrated episodic memory could be improved in older people with cognitive impairment
  • Trained P’s better than control
  • Episodic memory often affected by cognitive impairment
  • Strength of different LTM types as allows specific treatments to be developed
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27
Q

Define working memory model

A

A representation of short term memory suggesting that STM is a dynamic processor of different types of formation using sub units coordinated by a central decision making unit. Describes how memory is organised and how it functions

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28
Q

What is the central executive?

A

Component of WMM that co-ordinates the activities of the three subsystems in memory. An attentional process monitoring incoming data. It allocates processing resources to those activities

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29
Q

What is the phonological loop?

A

Component of the WMM that processes information in terms of sound. This includes written and spoken material divided into the phonological store and articulatory process

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30
Q

What is the visuospatial sketchpad

A

Component of WMM that processes visual and spatial information in a mental span called the inner eye divided into the visual cache and inner scribe. Capacity of three or four objects

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31
Q

What is the episodic buffer

A

Component of WMM that brings together material from other subsystems into a single memory rather than separate strands. It provides a bridge between working memory and long term memory

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32
Q

What is the purpose of the phonological store and articulatory process?

A

Phonological store = stores words we hear

Articulatory process allows maintenance rehearsal with capacity of 2 seconds worth of speech

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33
Q

What is the purpose of the visual cache and inner scribe?

A

Visual cache = stores visual data

Inner scribe = Record arrangement of objets in visual field

34
Q

AO3: What is the clinical evidence for the working memory model?

A
  • Shallice and Warrington (1970) study of KF with brain damage
  • Poor STM ability for verbal information but could process visual information
  • Suggests phonological loop damaged but other areas intact
  • Supports existence of different stores by case studies are unique and hence may not be reliable
35
Q

AO3: What is the dual-task performance research supporting WMM?

A
  • Baddeley (1975) supported separate existence of visuospatial sketchpad
  • P’s had more difficulty with two visual tasks than one visual one verbal
  • Increased difficulty as two visuals compete for same slave system
  • Must be separate system for VSS
36
Q

AO3: Why is there a lack of clarity for the central executive?

A
  • Unsatisfactory and unexplained
  • Baddeley even claimed it is the most important but least explained
  • Must be more clear than just attention
  • Hence WMM lacks an explanation
37
Q

Define interference

A

Forgetting because one memory blocks another, causing one or both to be distorted or forgotten

38
Q

Define proactive interference

A

Occurs when an older memory interferes with a newer one

39
Q

Define retroactive interference

A

Occurs when a newer memory interferes with an older one

40
Q

What is the procedure of McGeoch + McDonald (1931):

A 
- Studied retroactive interference by changing amount of similarity between two sets of words
Group 1 = synonyms
Group 2 = Antonyms
Group 3 = Unrelated words
Group 4 = Nonsense syllables
Group 5 = Three digit numbers
Group 6 = No new list
41
Q

What are the findings of McGeoch + McDonald (1931):

A
  • Performance depended on nature of second list
  • Similar material produced worse recall
  • Shows interference strongest when memories similar
42
Q

AO3: What is the evidence from lab studies for interference?

A
  • Thousands of lab studies show LTM likely to be forgotten due to interference e.g McGeoch + McDonald (1931)
  • Strength as lab experiments control effects and give good validity
43
Q

AO3: Why are artificial materials in interference a problem?

A
  • Greater chance interference caused in lab than real life
  • Stimulus in lab list of words is more realistic but is different from what we may remember in real life
  • Limitation as artificial tasks may it more likely in lab so may not be likely explanation of forgetting
44
Q

AO3: What are the real-life studies supporting interference?

A
  • Baddeley and Hitch (1977) wanted to find if interference was better explanation than passage of time
  • Rugby players asked to remember names of teams played
  • Recall better when no more teams played since last team and not dependant on how long ago
  • Explanation for at least some everyday situations
45
Q

Define retrieval failure

A

A form of forgetting that occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access the memory. The memory is accessible but not available unless a suitable cue is prodivded

46
Q

Define cue

A

A trigger of information that allows us to access a memory. Such cues may be meaningful or may be indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning. Cues may external (context) or internal (state)

47
Q

What is the encoding specificity principle? + BONUS AO3

A

A principle proposed by Tulving (1983) that states if a cue is to help recall information, it must be present at encoding and retrieval
- Relies on assumptions due to cyclical nature and so cannot be falsified

48
Q

Describe research into context dependant forgetting

A
  • Godden + Baddeley (1975)
  • P’s learnt list of words on land or under water and recalled on land or under water
  • Recall was 40% lower when conditions did not match as different cues led to retrieval failure
49
Q

Describe research into state dependant forgetting

A
  • Carter + Cassaday (1998)
  • P’s learn list of words on or off antihistamine drug and recalled on or off antihistamine drug
  • Recall significantly worse when cues did not match
50
Q

What is state dependant and content dependant forgetting

A 
State = internal cues at time of encoding do not match time of  retrieval
Context = Environmental cues at time of encoding do not match time of  retrieval
51
Q

AO3: What is the supporting evidence for retrieval failure?

A
  • Lots of good research to suggest retrieval failure main reason
  • Eysenck (2010) argues retrieval failure main reason
  • Strictly controlled lab conditions
  • Increases validity of explanation
52
Q

AO3: Why may the findings of retrieval failure studies lack ecological validity?

A
  • Baddeley (1997) argues context effects not very strong
  • Most conditions not as polar as water and land in real life
  • Questions existence of context effects in normal life
  • Suggests retrieval failure is only good for very distinct cues and not good for day to day life
53
Q

AO3: Why do retrieval failure studies have poor generalisability?

A
  • Godden and Baddeley (1980) repeated with recognition test
  • No diference between four groups
  • Retrieval failure only explains some types of memory and under certain conditions
  • Not universal and hence poor generalisability
54
Q

Define eyewitness testimony

A

The ability of people to remember the details of events such as accidents and crimes which they observed. Accuracy of EWT can be effected by factors such as misleading information, anxiety and post event discussion

55
Q

Define misleading information

A

Incorrect information given to the eyewitness usually after the event. It can take the form of post event discussion or leading questions

56
Q

Define leading questions

A

Questions which suggest a certain answer due to the phrasing and vocabulary

57
Q

Define post event discussion

A

Occurs when there is more than one witness and they discuss what they have seen which may affect the accuracy of each witness’s recall

58
Q

Summarise the procedure of Loftus + Palmer (1974)

A
  • P’s watched film of car accidents
  • Critical question which was leading about how fast
  • Verb changed for five groups (hit, contacted, bumped, collided, smashed)
59
Q

Summarise the findings of Loftus + Palmer (1974)

A
  • Mean estimate for contacted was 31.8mph whereas mean for smashed was 40.5
  • Leading question biased the eyewitness recall of an event
60
Q

Why do leading questions affect EWT?

A
  • Response bias explanation suggests wording of question has no effect on memory but just affects how they answer
  • Substitution explanation supported by another Loftus and Palmer experiment states wording changes memory of event
61
Q

Summarise the procedure of Gabbert et al (2003)

A
  • P’s watched video of crime from different view points so could only see certain aspects
  • Both P’s then discussed what they had seen individually
  • Test of recall then took place
62
Q

Summarise the findings of Gabbert et al (2003)

A
  • 71% of P’s recalled something that was not in the video they watched
  • Control group with no discussion scored 0%
  • Gabbert concluded witnesses go along with eachother to gain social approval or because they believe they are wrong
  • Phenomenon called memory conformity
63
Q

AO3: Why does misleading information research have good real life applications

A
  • Real life application as consequences of inaccurate EWT can be serious
  • Loftus (1975) believed leading questions could have a distorting effect on answers to police officers etc
  • Important positive difference can be made to lives e.g legal system
64
Q

AO3: Why is it bad that research into misleading information have artificial tasks?

A
  • Film of car accident very different experience from witnessing in real life
  • Lack stress and anxiety
  • Limitation as artificial tasks tell us little about EWT is affected by leading questions in real life
  • Could be better or worse than the results of Loftus
65
Q

AO3: Why may individual differences be a problem in misleading information research?

A
  • Evidence older people less accurate than younger people when giving eyewitness reports
  • Anastasi + Rhodes (2006) found people in age groups 18-25, 35-45 were more accurate than 55-78
  • All groups better at identifying own age (own age bias)
  • Research studies use younger people as target so older people may appear less accurate when this is not the case
  • Reduce validity
66
Q

Define anxiety

A

A state of emotional and physical arousal where emotions include having worried thoughts and feelings of tension. Physical changes include an increased heart rate and sweatiness. Anxiety is a normal reaction to stressful situations but can affect the accuracy and detail of eyewitness testimony

67
Q

Summarise the research into anxiety having a negative effect on recall

A
  • Johnson + Scott (1976) led P’s to believe lab study
  • Waited in waiting room
  • Low anxiety heard argument and witnessed a man walk through with a greasy pen and hand
  • High anxiety heard argument accompanied by the smash of glass and a man with a knife covered in blood
  • P’s had to identify man from 50 photos. Low anxiety were 49% accurate compared to high anxiety 33%
  • Tunnel theory argues attention narrows to weapon as it is a source of anxiety
68
Q

Why does anxiety improve or decrease accuracy of EWT?

A
  • Arousal which prevents us paying attention to cues so recall worse
  • Fight or flight response which increases alertness and improves memory hence increasing accuracy of EWT
69
Q

Summarise research into anxiety having a positive effect on recall

A
  • Yullie + Cutshall (1986)
  • Real life shooting in Vancouver
  • Shop owner shot their dead and 21 witnesses present, 13 took part
  • Interviews took place 4-5 months after incident and compared with police interviews
  • Stress at time rated on 7 point scale
  • Little change in accuracy after 5 months
  • Highest stress P’s had best accuracy of 88% than low stress P’s with 75%
70
Q

How can we explain the contradictory findings of research into anxiety affecting EWT?

A
  • Yerkes + Dodson (1908) stated relationship between arousal and EWT performance looks like an inverted U
  • As anxiety increase, so does recall only up to a certain point
71
Q

AO3: Why is the Yerkes-Dodson law too simplistic?

A
  • Moderate arousal yield most accuracy
  • Over simplified explanation as anxiety does not take into account multiple factors which make up arousal such as cognitive, behavioural or emotional aspects
72
Q

AO3: Why may the weapon focus effect not be relevant?

A
  • May test for surprise rather than anxiety
  • Pickel (1998) conducted a study and found highest levels of EWT were found in conditions with high unusualness e.g raw chicken in hairdressing salon
  • Suggests weapon focus effect can only be used to explain certain influences of anxiety on accuracy of EWT
  • Not a universal explanation
73
Q

AO3: Why may field studies lack control in anxiety EWT studies?

A
  • Lack of control for extraneous variables so susceptible to bias
  • Yullie + Cutshall could not control post event discussion etc
  • Media and schemas may affect results so may lack reliability
74
Q

AO3: What are the ethical issues with anxiety EWT studies?

A
  • Distressing images of car crash and recalling traumatic crimes may cause psychological harm
  • Breaches BPS guideline to protect from psychological harm
  • Real life useful, so no need to recreate an event
  • Cost benefit analysis needed for findings of research
75
Q

Define cognitive interview

A

A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories. It uses four main techniques all based on established psychological knowledge go human memory

76
Q

What are the four steps of the cognitive interview

A

Report everything, reinstate context, reverse order, change perspective

77
Q

What is meant by report everything and reinstate contact in the CI?

A

Report everything - Witnesses include all details even if it seems irrelevant as it may be important and trigger other memories
Reinstate context - Return to original crime scene in the mind and imagine environment. This could cause context dependant cues to appear

78
Q

What is meant by reverse the order and change perspective in the CI?

A

Reverse order - Different chronological order to prevent expectations of how the event occurred and prevents dishonesty
Change perspective - Recall form other’s perspectives to disrupt expectations and schemas

79
Q

What is the enhanced CI?

A
  • Developed by Fisher et al (1987)
  • Additional social dynamics such as eye contact, reducing anxiety, minimising distractions, getting witness to speak slowly and asking open questions
80
Q

AO3: Why may the CI be bad in terms of time?

A
  • Time consuming as more time for rapport
  • Requires more training
  • Many cannot provide this training
  • Unlikely actual CI used so effectiveness not seen and may not be fully used
81
Q

AO3: Why may only some elements be beneficial for the CI, why is this good?

A
  • Mine and Bull (2002) found each component of CI to be of same effectiveness but report all and context reinstatement combination most effective
  • Strength as shows at least two should be used
  • Alternative if police do not have time for training etc
82
Q

AO3: What is the support for the effectiveness of the ECI? How is this challenged?

A
  • Meta-analysis by Kohnken (1999) combined data from 50 studies
  • CI provided more correct information than standard interview
  • Real practice of using CI and helps police charge criminals
  • Although increase of 81% for correct info, 61% increase for incorrect info so cost benefit analysis needed

Psychology - Paper 1 (4 decks)

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