Social Infleunce Flashcards
Name the different types of conformity
Internalisation
Identification
Compliance
Explain internalisation
(True conformity)
• Public and private acceptance of majority influence, through adoption of the majority group’s belief system.
• Stronger, permanent form of conformity, as it is maintained outside of the group’s presence.
Explain Identification
• Public and private acceptance of majority influence in order to gain group acceptance.
• Stronger form of conformity, but still temporary- don’t always agree with the group.
Explain compliance
• Publicly, but not privately going along with majority influence to gain approval/avoid ridicule
• Weak/temporary and only shown in presence of group
Explain the explanations for conformity (ISI)
ISI is a cognitive process because it is to do with what you think.
ISI is an explanation of conformity that says we agree with the opinion of the majority because we believe it is correct
We accept it because we want to be correct as well.
We change both our private and public behaviour/views to be consistent with the majority.
Explain the explanations of conformity (NSI)
NSI is an emotional process rather than a cognitive one.
NSI is an explanation of conformity that says we agree with the opinion of the majority because we want to be accepted, gain social approval and be liked. People do not like to appear foolish. We want to gain social approval.
The person may publicly change their behaviour/view but will privately disagree.
Examples of compliance
A pupil who is asked to straighten their tie by a teacher but later loosens it
A child cleaning up their room because their parent asked them although they despise doing it.
Listening to a friends music and saying it’s good despite not liking it.
Examples of internalisation
A students returns from their first term at university as a vegetarian like his flatmates.
A student becomes to enjoy a sport due to influence from their classmates . He then plays it during their free time.
Examples of identification
A student returning from their first time at university is desperate for roast beef, having been a vegetarian along with his flatmates all term
Choosing a sneaker brand because it is popular among your friends , although you want an alternative one
Explain conformity
Yielding to group pressure
Why would people conform (ISI)
• Uncertain
• Agree with majority and believe that it is right
• Want to be right
• Cognitive process (think about it)
• Public & private agreement ->Internalisation Situations that are new to a person
Some ambiguity
In crisis situations
One person (or group) is regarded as being more of an expert.
Why would people conform (NSI)
• Agree with the opinion of majority
• Need for acceptance
• Gain social approval/be liked
• Emotional process
• Public & private views differ -> Compliance
Situations with strangers
Occur with people you know
Pronounced in stressful situations
What factors can influence conformity
Group size
Difficulty of task
Experience of peers
Experience of participant
Number of conformers / non-conformers
Unanimity
What/when was the experiment that Sherif conducted
conformity and the autokinetic effect
Sherif (1935)
Method of Sherif’s experiment
Experiment with a repeated measure design . Sherif used a visual illusion (auto kinetic effect) where a stationary stop of light, viewed in dark room appears to move
Participants were falsely told that the dot would move and had to estimate the distance it moved.
During the first phase individuals made repeat estimates. They were then put into groups of 3 where they each made their estimate. Finally, they were retested individually.
Result of Sherif’s experiment
When they were alone, participants developed their own stables estimates (personal norms) which varied widely between participants.
However, once in a group estimates converged.
When participants were retested their estimates were more like the group estimates than their own individual estimates.
Conclusion of Sherif’s experiment
Participants were influenced by the estimates of other people, and a group normally developed.
Estimates converged as they were influenced by the group when retested. They were influenced by ISI
Evaluation of Sherif’s experiment
Strict control variables. Results are unlikely to to have been affected by a third variable , so it should be possible to establish cause and effect
Method can be replicated
Repeated measure design meant that participant variables that could have affected the results were kept constant. However, the method was flawed as participants were asked to judge the movement of the light. (Lacks ecological validity- unnatural situation)
The sample was limited- all participants were all male , so the results cannot be generalised by anyone.
Ethical problem - deceptive study as the participants were told the light was not moving.
What/when was the study that Asch conducted
Conformity on an unambiguous task
Asch (1951)
Methods of Asch’s study
Asch experiment was with an independent group design. In groups of 8 participants judged line lengths by saying out loud which comparison line (1, 2 or 3) matched the standard line.
Each group had one real participant- other were confederates . The participant went last or before last.
Each participant did 18 trials.
12 of these participants were critical trials (confederate all gave the wrong answer)
Control group where the participants judged the line lengths in isolation.
Results of Asch’s study
In control trials, participants gave the wrong answer 0.7% of the time.
In critical trails, participants conformed to the majority 37% of the time. (75% at least once)
Some participants didn’t believe their answer but didn’t want to look different
Conclusion of Asch’s study
Control condition showed that the task was easy to get right. However, 37% were wrong on critical trials.- they conformed to the majority due to NSI
Evaluation of Asch’s study
Good control variables. This minimizes the effects of extraneous variables.
Strict control of the variables also means that you could easily repeat the study to see if you get the same result.
Study lacks ecological validity. Participants didn’t care about the results. They may have been likely to conform if there were consequences for their answer.
The participants were deceived and might have been embarrassed when they found the true nature of the study.
Explain the results of variation of Asch’s study (Group size)
Group size:
Range of confederate from 1-15 and the level of conformity varied drastically.
1 confederate, the real participants conformed 3% of the critical trials.
3 confederates , the real participants conformed on 32% of critical trials. (Same percentage of Asch’s experiment with 7)
What explanation of social influences does Asch’s study + variations link to
Original study- ISI and NSI
Group size- NSI
Unanimity- ISI
Task difficulty- ISI
Why was Asch’s experiment a child of its time
Perrin and Spencer (1980) repeated Asch’s orginal study
1 out of 396 Uk engineering students conformed, possibly due to finding these tasks easier because of their line of study. It shows that Asch’s study lacks temporal vadility and people are possibly less conformist today
People were more likely to conform to establish social norms at the time of Asch’s study. Idea of MyCarthyism (people prosecuted for going against majority)
Evaluate the artificial situation and task of Asch’s study
Demand characteristics- artificial task may lead to ptps attempting to find outcome which the experimenter wants.
Trivial- simple/ unimportant task which causes pops to have no motivation to get correct thus leading to conformity
Fiske (2014) ‘Asch” groups were not very groupy”- all confederates expect from ptp in original study. Furthermore, other ptps may be strangers. Not applicable to real life scenarios where people have stronger bonds.
Cannot be generalised (lacks ecological validity) does not apply to a real life setting
Limited applicability of Asch’s experiment
In the 1970’ it was suggested that women would be more conformist, possibly because they are more concerned with social relationships.
Eagly and Carli (1981) re-analsyed the data from the previous studies (meta-analysis):
-sex differences were inconsistent
-Clearest difference between men and women- group pressure from an audience
-Eagly (1987) argued that different social roles explains the difference in conformity:
-Women are more concerned with group harmony
Assertiveness and independence are valued male attributes
Ethical issues of Asch’s experiment
The experiment may have been thought of to be deceptive and might have been embarrassed when they found out the true nature of the study
However, this can be counteracted by the cost benefit analysis as the real participant had nothing to gain from choosing the majorative answer (as it was just an experiment) thus should of picked their own individual choice.
Explain the results of variation of Asch’s study (Unanimity)
Unanimity:
One confederate always gave the correct answer throughout. In this variation the rate of conformity dropped to 5%.
In another variation conformity still dropped significantly, but this time to 9%. This shows if the group’s unanimous position is broken then conformity is reduced.
Explain the results of variation of Asch’s study (Task difficulty)
In Asch’s original study, the correct answer was always obvious. However, in this variation he made the task more difficult by making the difference between the line lengths significantly smaller.
As a result conformity increased. This is more likely due to ISI , as individuals look to another for guidance in difficult situations.
Cultural differences of Asch’s study
Individualistic cultures ( Uk and US) is where personal goals take preference. More concern about self, than others.
Social behaviour in collective cultures (China) is determined by goals with the collective rather than seperate from it.Found that conformity rates are higher (Bond and Smith, 1996)
What is McCarthyism
McCarthyism is the political action of making accusations of disloyalty, subversion, or treason without proper regard for evidence.
When was McCarthyism most popular
Around the 1950’s
Method of Reicher and Haslam prison experiment
Controlled observation in a mock prison
15 male participants who responded to an advert.
They were randomly assigned into two groups- five were guards and 10 were prisoners.
They had daily test to measure levels of depression, compliance with rules, and stress.
The prisoners knew that one of them , chosen at random, would become a guard within three days.
An independent ethics committee had the power to stop the experiment at any time in order to protect the participants.
Results of Reicher and Haslam prison experiment
Guards failed to form a united group and identify with their role. They didn’t exercise their power and said they felt uncomfortable of the inequality.
In the first three days, the prisoners tried to act in a way that would get them promoted to guard status
After one was promoted, they became stronger due to chances of promotion. The unequal system collapsed due to unwillingness of guards aside strength of prisoners.
On day six the prisoner rebelled and participant lived in democracy until it collapsed shortly due to tension in the group.
Some former prisoners then wanted to set up a strict regime with them as leader
The study was abandoned early as participant showed signs of extreme stress
Conclusion of Reicher and Haslam prison experiment
The participant did not fit into their expected social roles, suggesting that these roles are flexible
Evaluation of Reicher and Haslam experiment
Prisoners were a strong group the guards were weak
The guards were not as empowered as the guards in Zimbardo’s group who were actively encouraged to maintain order
Elements of the study were considered to be staged as the study was made for TV
Artificial situation, the results cannot be generalised to real life
The ethics of the study were good-the participants were not deceived they were able to give informed consent
Participants protected by ethics committee
Participants were debriefed and offered counseling afterwards
Aim of Zimbardo’s study
Police brutality throughout America in 1960
Zimbardo wanted to find if prisoner guards behave brutally because they have sadistic personalities, or is it the situation that creates such behavior.
Explain the basic experiment procedure of the SPE
25 male volunteers
Study into ‘prison life’
Healthy middle class men
Randomly allocated to ‘prisoners’ or ‘guards’
Local police recruited
Blindfolded when taken into the prison , arrested at home, stripped and sprayed with disinfectant,
Stanford University, California
Inmates called by numbers and are supervised at all times]
Given shifts to work
Lined up to be counted
The guards wore khaki shirt and trousers, dark glasses and carried wooden batons
Explain the findings of the SPE
Experiment started slowly but guards soon changed their behaviour.Their behaviour became a threat to the prisoner pyschological and physical health
The study was stopped after 6 days instead of 14
Guards employed ‘divide and rule; tactics by playing the prisoners off against each other
How might you crictise Zimbardo and what was his response exactly
CRITICS:
Didn’t give informed consent- didn’t point out some of the impacts from the experiment
Humiliated inmates (arrested, blindfolded, stripped, deloused and verbally mistreated)
Ends do not justify the means (Savin, 1973)
RESPONSE:
Spoke to participants
longitudinal care
The experiment just made people uneasy
Affects on mental health from the SPE
Prisoners become subdued, depressed and anxious
One prisoner had to be released after one day as he showed symtpons of psychological disturbance
Two more were released on the fourth day
One prisoner went on hunger strike - this resulted in guards force feeding him and putting him in the ‘hole’
This prisoner was shunned by the other prisoners (divide and rule tactics form guards)
The guards identified with their role the most-becoming brutal and aggressive and appearing to enjoy their power
Only stopped after Maslash claimed they were being cruel
Positives for the control which Zimbardo’s had over the experiment
Zimbardo and his colleagues had some control over variables. Seen in his selection of participants
Emtionally stable individuals were chosen and randomly assigned to the roles of guards and prisoners. Behavior must have been due to the pressure of the situation as they were randomly assigned
Increase the internal vadility of the study- different parts of the test gave consistent results,
Negatives for the lack of realism of the SPE experiment
• Banuazizi and Mohavedi (1975) argued that participants were merely play-acting rather than genuinely conforming to a role.
- Based on stereotypes
- One of the guards claimed he based his role on a brutal character in the film ‘Cool Hand Luke’
- Prisoners rioted because they thought that’s what real prisoners did
Zimbardo’s response to the lack of realism
quantitative results gathered during the procedure showed that 90% of the prisoner’s conversations were about prison life
prisoners 416 expressed the view that it was a real prison, run by psychologists, not the government
Evaluate the negatives of the role of dispositional influences in Zimbardo experiment
Fromm (1973) accused Zimbardo of exaggerting the power of personality factors:
Only about a third of the guards behaved in a brutal manner
Another third were keen on applying rules fairly and the rest actively tried to help and support the prisoners
The conclusion drawn shows that participants were conforming to social roles, could be over-stated
The guards were able to excercise right or wrong choices, despite the situational pressure to conform to a role
Additional evaluation of the SPE
Reicher and Haslam BBC replication of SPE (2006) :
Findings showed the prisoners took control of the mock prison and subjected the guards to a campaign of harrasment and disobedience
Social identity theory (Tajifel 1981) :
guards failed to develop a shared social identity as a cohesive group but the prisoner did
Prisoners actively identified themselves as a member of a social group that refused to accept the limits of their assigned roles
Real work application of the SPE
-From 2003-2004, the US Army Military police personnel commmited a series of human rights violations against Iraqui prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison in Baghdad
Prisoners were tortured, physically and sexually abused, routinely humiliated and some were murdered.
Explain obedience
Obedience is a type of social influence which causes a person to act in a response to an order given by another person. The person who gives the order is usually a figure of authority, who has the power to punish when obedient behaviour is not forthcoming.
What / when was the experiment which Milgram conducted
Milgram (Obedience of authority)
1963
Method of Milgram’s experiment
Milgram conducted a number of laboratory experiments to test factors thought to affect obedience. This condition tested whether people would obey orders to shock someone in a separate room. Took place in Yale university.
40 male participants , responded to a newspaper ad seeking volunteers for a study on ‘learning and memory’. They received payment for attending.
The experimenter wore a grey technicians coat. Each participant was introduced to a confederate. They drew fake lots to see who would be ‘teacher’ or ‘leaner’. This was rigged.
The participant witnessed the confederate being strapped to the chair and attached to the shock generator. The switch ranged from 15-450 volts. The participants taught the learn word-pairs over an intercom, If they answered incorrectly they would receive an increasing level of shock. The participant thought this was real
After 300v the learner pounded on the wall;; and made no further response. If the participants hesitated the experimenter would forced them to continue.
Debriefing included an interview , questionnaires and being reunited with the ‘learner’
Result of Milgram’s experiment
26 participants (65%) administered 450v and none stopped before administering 300v
Most of the participants showed obvious signs of stress like sweating, groaning and trembling
Conclusion of Milgram’s experiment
Ordinary people obey orders to hurt someone else, even if it means acting against their conscience.
It is not necessarily evil people who commit evil crimes but ordinary people who are just obeying orders
Crimes against humanity may be the outcome of situational rather than dispositional factors
An individual capacity for making independent decisions is suspended under certain situational constraints- namely, being given an order by an authority figure.
Explain the Norma Jean Orlando experiment (1973)
29 staff members of the hospital volunteered to be ‘patients’ and were held in his ward. 22 staff members were also involved but they just carried out their normal roles
Patients started behaving like real patients of the hospital. Conforming to the roles assigned to them. They Showed expression and withdrawal and tried to escape
Afterwards they stated that they felt frustarted, anxious and despairing . They lost their identity didn’t feel like they were treated as people
Real life parallels of obedience being used in an immoral way
Nazi extermination policy towards Jews began in 1941 when special mobile killing units began lining up and shooting Jews in mass graves (Nazis killed 5-6 million Jews)
My Lai massacre, Vietnam 1968- 500 villagers killed by US troops
Khmer Rouge Cambodia 1975- Khmer Rouge killed 1-2 million people
Rwandan genocide, 1994- Hutus killed 500,000 people
Abu Graib prison abuses, 2004 - American soldiers Iraqi prisoners
Evaluate the internal validity within Milgram’s study
• Orne and Holland (1968) argued that participants behaved the way they did because they did not really believe in the set up
• Perry (2013) listened to tapes of Milgram’s participants and reported that many of them expressed their doubts about the shocks
Realism refuted by psychologists. Experimenter was cool and distant when learner cries out in pain. Therefore, participants thought no pain was inflicted and administers shocks.
-Therefore it lacked internal validity.
However, Sheridan and King (1972) support the realism of Milgram’s study with their own findings. They asked ppts to give electric shocks to a puppy.
Shocks were real, participants could see and hear the puppy. (54% men max shock // 100% women max shock)
Evaluate the supporting replication of Milgram’s study
In further support, there doesn’t appear to be any historical bias with Milgram’s studies.
Supporting replication (The Game of Death, 2010) ‘La zone Xtreme’
- 80% ppts delivered the maximum shock of 460 volts to an unconscious man
Evaluate the external validity of Milgram’s study
• Central feature: relationship between authority figure and participant
- Hofling et al., (1966) studied nurses on a hospital ward and found that levels of obedience to unjustified demands by doctors were very high- 21 out of 22 obeyed
Therefore Milgram’s experiment has a high external validity
Method of the nurse Obedience study (Hoflinget al)
• The procedure involved a naturalistic field experiment involving 22 (real) night nurses. Dr. Smith (a stooge) phones the nurses at hospital (on 22 separate occasions) and asks them to check to see if they have the drug astroten.
• When the nurse checks, she can see that the maximum dosage is supposed to be 10mg. When they reported to the ‘Doctor’, they were told to administer 20mg of the drug to a patient called ‘Mr. Jones’. Dr. Smith was in a desperate hurry and he would sign the authorisation form when he came to see Mr. Jones later on.
If drugs were administered three hospital rules would have been broken:
• 1. They are not allowed to accept instructions over the phone.
• 2. The dose was double the maximum limit stated on the box.
• 3. The medicine itself is unauthorised, i.e. not on the ward stock list.
Method of nurses obedience study (Rank and Jacobson) 1977
• Nurses were asked to administer Valium (3x the dose), a drug that the nurses should have been familiar with.
• They also gave the doctor a name known to the nurses, and the nurses all had the chance to discuss the order with each other.
• In these realistic circumstances only two out of 18 nurses obeyed the doctor’s orders
Explain the External validity of Milgram’s study and how it relate to the nurses obedience study (Cohen and Davis)
Cohen and Davis (1981) tell the story of a hospital doctor who wrote a prescription for one of his patients.
The procedure is for a nurse to read the prescription and administer the drug in whatever form the doctor prescribes.
The doctor wrote this: ‘Place in R ear’. This referred to drops put into the patient’s right ear.
Neither the nurse nor the patient questioned what a doctor was doing prescribing ear drops to be given rectally.
-Therefore Milgram’s experiment has high external validity (Cohen and Davis experiment links to obedience to an authority figure similarly to Milgram’s)
Ethical issues of Milgrams study
• Baumrind (1964) was very critical about the way Milgram deceived his participants.
- They believed they were randomly allocated the roles of teacher or learner
- They believed the electric shocks were real
- This level of betrayal of trust could damage the reputation of other psychologists
Evaluate the link of social identify theory with Milgram’s study
The key to obedience lies in group identification
Participants identified with the experimenter and identified with the science of the study:
- If the obedience level fell this was due to participants identifying less with the science and more with the learner
- Haslam and Reicher (2010) the first three prods did not demand obedience, they appeal for help with the science
This Links with Milgram’s experiment as the experimenter who was an authoritative figure encouraged the ‘teacher’ to view the ‘learner’ as an out-group. This encourages the ‘teacher’ (participant) to carry out harmful action and shock the ‘learner’ (confederate). Through the experimenters shift of responsibility, authoritative standpoint and the reduction in personal accountability of the ppt. The ppt was obedient.
Explain proximity in relation to Milgram’s study
• This refers to the physical closeness or distance of an authority figure to the person they are giving an order to.
• Also refers to the physical closeness of the ‘teacher’ to the learner (victim)
What percentage of people shocked in the original study compared with the proximity variation
65%- original (teacher and learner in adjoining rooms)
40%-teacher and learner in the same room
How did Milgram’s change the variable of in a variety of ways in order to study the effects of proximity
• One condition required the ‘teacher’ to force the ‘learner’s hand onto an electroshock plate when he refused to answer a question – touch proximity
- In this condition the obedience rate dropped to 30%
• In another condition, the experimenter left the room and gave the instructions to the teacher by telephone – remote proximity
- In this condition the obedience rate dropped to 20.5%
-The ptps in this condition also frequently pretended to give shocks or gave much weaker shocks than they had been ordered to give
Explain location in relation to Milgram’s study
• This refers to the place where an order is issued
• The relevant factor that influences obedience is the status or prestige associated with the location
What percentage of people shocked in the original study compared with the location variation (MIlgram’s study)
Original-65% (prestigious university setting Yale)
location variation- 47.5% (run-down office down town)
Explain uniform in relation to Milgram’s study
• People in positions of authority often have a specific outfit that is symbolic of their authority.
• This indicates to the rest of us who is entitled to expect our obedience.
What percentage of people shocked in the original study compared with the uniform variation (MIlgram’s study)
Original- 65% experimenter wore a coat
Variation- 20% Role of experimenter carried out by an ordinary member of the public (confederate)
Explain the method of Research support (AO3) of Milgram’s study- Bickman
Bickman (1974) tested the ecological validity of Milgram’s work by conducting an experiment in a more realistic setting.
• In this study, three male researchers gave direct requests to 153 randomly selected pedestrians in Brooklyn, New York.
• The researchers were dressed in one of three ways:
➢guards uniform (similar to that of a police officer)
➢milkman’s uniform
➢civilian clothing (sports jacket and tie)
The pedestrians were given random instruction: ‘pick up this bag for me’ , ‘you have to stand on this side of the pole’ , ‘can you litter for me’.
Result of Research support (AO3) of Milgram’s study-Bickman
Bickman observed that 80% of participants obeyed the researcher who was dressed to look like a police officer, whereas 40% of those approached by the researcher wearing
civilian clothing or the milkman’s uniform obeyed the request.
Method of Research support (AO3) of Milgram’s study- Bushman
Bushman (1988) carried out a study where a female researcher dressed either in a ‘police-style’ uniform, as a business executive or as a beggar, stopped people in the street and told them to give change to a male researcher for an expired meter.
Result of Research support (AO3) of Milgram’s study-Bushman
When she was in uniform 72% of the people obeyed, whereas obedience rates were much lower when she was dressed as a business executive (48%) or as a beggar (52%)
When interviewed afterwards, people claimed they had obeyed the woman in uniform because she appeared to have authority
What does the control variables within Milgram’s study achieve
The control variables used in Milgram’s study means that it is possible for others researchers to replicate (repeat) the study in the exact same way.
This is important in science to make sure that findings are not just one-off chance events.
Results of cross cultural replication of Milgram’s study and what can this show?
Both Milgram’s original stuy, and his variations have been replicated in other cultures and have found similar results.
Spanish students 90%. This suggests that Miilrgams findings are not limited to American males, but are valid across all cultures (and apply to women). This suggests a robust phenomen is being studied,
However, most replication have been carried out in Western societies. As a result obedience levels may not be the same worldwide.
Milgram’s study offers an obedience alibi although does not explain reasoning behind real-life atrocities.
How is this shown?
Mandel (1988)- reserve Police battalion 101
Proximity of the victim- Milgram had shown that obedience fell if it was more personal. However, this was not the same with the R.P.B 101.
Proximity of authority figure- no empathy shown by R.P.B 101 despite the authority being further away
Presence of allies- majority did not follow those who extricated themselves and continued to kill Jews
Increasing the subordinates distrection- became more brutal more power given to the R.P.B 101. However, still killed Jews despite having more authority.
Deep seated hatred for the Jews rather than a group of men reluctantly ‘obeying orders;’.
How do people use Milgram’s findings of the obedience alibi to reason for the innocence of perpetrators during the Holocaust.
What does this cause?
Some people considered a situational perspective on the Holocaust’s offensive behaviors because it removes personal responsibility from the perpetrators.
To suggest that Nazi’ executions of Jews were ‘only doing their duty by obeying orders’ implies that they were also the victim of situational pressure.
This implies that anyone faced with similar situation would have behaved in the same way. It runs the risk of trivialising genocide
(AO1)- explain the agentic state
A mental state where we feel no personal responsibility for our behaviour because we believe ourselves to be acting for an authority figure, for example, as their agent.
This frees us from the demands of our conscience and allows us to obey even a destructive authority figure.
(AO1)- explain the legitimacy to authority
An explanation for obedience which suggests that we are more likely to obey people who perceive to have authority over us.
This authority is justified by the individual’s position of power within a social hierarchy.
(AO1)- explain the Autonomous state
Means to be independent or free
Free to behave in accordance to their own principles and therefore feels a sense of responsibility for their own actions.
Explain Milgram’s agentic shift
A persons can change from being in the autonomous state where they see themselves acting on their own.
However, there can be an agentic shift from autonomy to ‘agency;
Where they see themselves as an agent for carrying out another person’s wishes (agentic state)
Binding factors to authority during MIlgram’s study
Reluctance to disrupt the experiment- obligation
Pressure of the surroundings- legitimate authority
Insistence of the authority figure
Social etiquette regulates our behavior
what is the legitimacy of authority
Hierarchical systems in society-agreed by society
Granted power to punish others
Give up independence and hand control of our behavior to people we trust
How are people legitimate to authority
Perceiving someone to be in a position of social control
Shared expectation to have a leader
Their power stems from their perceived position in a social situation
During MIlgram’s experiment people entered the laboratory with the expectation someone will be in charge
How does self image effect the agentic shift
Once they move in to the agentic state worrying about their own image is no longer as relevant. Their duty is seen to take priority as they are obedient to authority.
• They see the action as no longer being their responsibility or reflections of their own self-image.
How is destructive authority seen through the My Lai Massacre (AO2)
Americans soldiers killed 500 villagers
Lt William Calley ordered them to do this
He accepted no guilt and blamed it on his commanding officer
Evaluate the research support for legitimate authority against MIlgram’s study
Blass and Schmitt (2001)
Students who were shown a video of Milgram’s experiment, blamed the experimenter, rather than the teacher
Responsibility is due to legitimate authority
The experimenter was thought to be an “Expert scientist”
Evidence against the switch between autonomous and agentic state of Milgram’s study
Milgram claimed people shift between the autonomous and agentic state
Evidence against this:
Doctors in the concentration camps in Aushwitz- carried out vile and lethal experiments on victims
Mandel (1988): German Reserve Police Battalion 101- no direct orders (however still massacred Jews)
Carrying out acts of evil over an extended period of time can change the way people think and feel
Evaluate the cultural differences of the replication of MIlgram’s study (kilman and Mann)
Kilman and Mann- (1974)- replication of Milgram’s study
-Australia- 16% (50 participants)
Mantell (1971)
-Germany- 85%
In some cultures authority is more likely to be accepted as legitmate authority and entitled to demand obedience
Increases the validity of the explanation
How is obedience for authority shown in the cockpit (real life example)
Air Asiana (2013) “didn’t want to question the captains orders”
Review of accidents - second pilot- did not want to question authroity of the lead pilot - ‘cockpit culture’
Evidence to support redefining the situation and legitmate authority
Explain why there is a limited explanation of the agentic shift in the nurses experiment
• The agentic shift explanation predicts that the nurses handed over responsibility to the doctor, and they should have shown levels of anxiety similarly to Milgram’s, as they understood their role in the destructive process, but they did not.
What is the agentic shift linked to
Obedience
The bystander effect
what / When was Adorno et al experiment
The authoritarian personality experiment
1950
Method used in Adorno eat Al experiment
Adorno proposed that over-strict parenting results in a child being socialised to obey authority unquestioningly.
The researchers were trying to find out if there are characteristics of individual which could explain the persecution of Jews and other minority groups by the Nazis.
His experiment asked 2000 middle class American males to complete the F-scale (fascism scale).
Results of Adorno et Al experiment
Adorno proposed that people who received a high F-scale score were more likely to have strict parents who made the child feel constrained, which causes them to become aggressive.
Adorno identified a number of personality traits, that have resulted from
over-strict parenting as the authoritarian personality.
This included: Obedience to authority, submissive to authority, inflexible with views and outlook of society.
Conclusion of Adorno et al experiment
Adorno concluded that the authoritarian personality is a dispositional explanation for obedience, due to overly-harsh and strict parenting.
Evaluation of Adorno et al experiment
Elms and Milgram found that participants who scored higher on the F-scale had been willing to administer bigger shocks in Milgram’s experiment.
As this study tested individual personality types, it does not explain why whole societies become obedient.
Explain situational (AO1)
Explanations that focus on the influences that stem from the environment in which that individuals is found
Explain dispositional (AO1)
Explanations of individual behaviour caused by internal characteristics that reside within the individual personality e.g authoritarian personality.
Explain Authoritarian personality
A collection of traits/ dispositions developed from strict/rigid parenting e.g confromist/ conventional/ dogmagic and unyielding
Obedient/ servile towards people of perceived higher status
What does the f-scale measure
The scale measure different aspects of personality:
Conventionalism
Preoccupation of power
Examples of authoritarian characteristics
Obedient to authority
Submissive to authority (blind respect)
Inflexible with their outlook
View society to need strong and powerful leaders to enforce traditional values
Why would people develop an Authoritarian personality
Harsh parenting- strict discipline, expectations to be completely loyal, impossible high standards, severe criticism of perceived failings, conditional love from parents
These experiences create resentment, hostility and despair in the child- who displaces these feelings onto the ‘weak’ (scapegoating）
Right wing Authoritarianism (Altemeyer 1981) posses what characteristics
Conventionalism - adhering to conventional norms and values
Authoritarian aggression- aggressive feelings towards people who violate these norms
Authoritarian submission- uncritical submission to legitimate authority
Evaluate the research support for Adorno et al
Milgram and Elms (1966):
Interviewed fully obedient participants, who scored highly on the F-scale
Critcism of Adorno et al (explanations cannot easily account for obedience of entire/ group/ societies)
Hyman and Sheatsley 1954) found that the Authoritarian Personality is more likely to exist among people who are less well educated and are of low economic status
This may be the third variable
But these results are inconsistent with the explanation- these people should be surely be considered the subordinate and the rebellious, not the ‘strict and oppressive’
So perhaps personality is not needed to explain obedience.
Evaluate the political bias within the F-scale
• Christie and Jahoda (1954)- F-scale measures tendency towards an
extreme right wing ideology
• Politically biased interpretation of authoritarian personality
Evaluate the political bias within Adorno et Al experiment
Adorno used a biased sample. HE used 2000 middle class white Americans who are likely fit have an Authoritarian personality.
Christie and Jahoda (1954)- F-scale measured tendency towards an extreme right wing ideology
Politically biased interpretation of authoritarian personality
Compare the methodology between Milgram’s and Adorno et Al experiment
Milgram’s rigorous and controlled experiments have shown that obedience is affected by the situation
In comparison to Adorno and the use of the F-scale, Milgram’s results on the situational variables are more reliable and valid
Explain the critcism of the methodological problems of Adorno et al experiment
Measurement of authoritarianism relies on self-report (F-scale) data which may be invalid due to social desirability bias.
Greenstein (1969) – the F-Scale is “a comedy of methodological errors” – ( the same row of boxes can be ticked on the same page ) and still score as HIGH authoritarian.
A scale should be randomised so agree/disagree should not lead in the same direction
Explain acquiescence bias
The tendency to simply ‘“agree” with everything
Explain resistance to social influence
The ability of people to withstand the social pressure to conform to the majority or to obey authority.
This ability is influenced by situational and dispositional factors.
Explain the Locus of Control
Refers to the sense we each have about what directs events in our lives.
Internals believe they are mostly responsible for what happens to them.
Externals believe it is mainly a matter of luck or other outside forces.
What are some examples of individuals throughout history who have resisted pressures to conform or obey
Hitler
Rosa Parks
MLK
Emmeline Pankhurst
Nelson Mandela
Explain how does social support resist conformity (Use an example of a learnt study)
• Social support enabled people to resist conformity.
• The introduction of an ally caused conformity levels to drop sharply from 33% to 5.5% (Asch)
Explanation:
-An ally raises the possibility that there are other legitimate ways of thinking and makes them feel more confident in resisting the majority.
Explain how does social support resist obedience (Use an example of a learnt study)
Milgram’s variation – three individuals testing the learner with 2 confederates who resisted, the result being that only 10% continued to the full shock level.
Explanation:
Individuals are more confident in their ability to resist when they have an ally who is willing to oppose the authority figure.
Someone else’s disobedience acts as a ‘model’ to copy- frees the conscience.
Compare people who have an internal LoC and a external LoC
Internal LoC:
• Tend to be leaders
• More likely to resist control from others
• More likely to blame themselves if something goes wrong
External LoC:
⚫ Good understanding or social / world issues
⚫ A critical mind
⚫ Better interpersonal skills
Evaluate the resistance to conformity (Allen and Levine)
• Allen and Levine (1971) –conformity decreased when there was one dissenter in an Asch-type study.
This also happened if the dissenter wore thick glasses and he said he had difficulty with his vision.
Explain why response order is important
• The order of the response is important.
• Allen and Levine – All participants went last. People were more likely to conform when the confederate with the right answer went first as they make a social commitment to the answer.
• Less likely when confederate went 4th – did not have enough time to socially commit.
Evaluate the resistance to obedience (Gamson et al)
• Gamson et al., (1983) found higher levels of resistance in their study than Milgram.
• Unjust authority- manager was sacked because his lifestyle was offensive to the local community.
- Participants were in groups and had to produce evidence that would be used to help an oil company run a smear campaign.
- If they agreed with the manager they signed a consent form for their discussion to be shown in the ‘trial’
- 29 out of 33 (88%) rebelled. This shows social support is linked to greater resistance.
Evaluate the research for support/against LoC
• Holland (1967) – Milgram’s baseline study
- Measured with participants were internal or external
- 37% of internals did not continue to the highest shock level, compared to 23% of externals.
- Increased validity
However:
Twenge et al (2004) analysed data from American LOC studies over a 40 year period
Over time people have become more resistant to obedience, but also more external
Evaluate the limited use of LoC
• LOC and the role in resisting obedience is exaggerated
• Rotter (1982) - LoC only comes into play in novel (new) situations. This is why people has different reaction in new circumstances. They have to rely on inherent beliefs about control and influence
- Has little influence over our behaviour in familiar situations where our previous experiences will always be more important
What does the Rosenstrasse protest show
• Women protested against the holding of 2000 Jewish men and demanded their release.
• Directly illustrates the idea that social support enables people to resist conformity.
• Social support – ‘risking death together’
Why do people resist pressure to conform/ obey
• People – more willing to maintain independence – moral rather than physical judgements.
• Individual differences – educational history and religious background made a difference.
When / what was Moscovici’s experiment
1969
blue slides experiment
Explain the method of Moscovici’s experiment
This was a laboratory experiment investigating minority influence using 192 women.
In groups of six at a time, participants judged the colour of 36 slides. All of the slides were blue, but the brightness of the blue varied. Two of the six participants in the group were confederates.
In one condition the confederates called all 36 slides ‘green’ (consistent) and in another condition they called 24 ‘green’ and 12 ‘blue’ (inconsistent).
A control group was also used which contained no confederates
Explain the results of Moscovici’s experiment
In the control group, the participants called the slides ‘green’ 0.25% of the time.
In the consistent condition, 8.4% of the time, participants adopted the minority position and called the slides ‘green’ and 32% of participants called the slides ‘green’ at least once
In the inconsistent group, the participants moved to the minority position of calling the slides ‘green’ only 1.25% of the time
Explain the conclusion of Moscovici’s experiment
The confederates were in the minority but their views appear to have influenced the real participants.
The use of the two conditions illustrated that the minority had more influence when they were consistent in calling the slides ‘green’
Explain the evaluation of Moscovici’s experiment
Lacked ecological validity as it was a laboratory experiment and the task were artificial
The participants may have felt that judging the colour of the slides was a trivial exercise and they may have acted differently if their principles were involved
The results cannot be generalised as only women participated
As there was a control group, we know that the participants were actually influenced by the minority rather than being independently unsure of the colour of the slides
In a similar experiment, participants were asked to write down the colour rather than saying it out loud. In this conclusion, even more people agreed with the minority, which provides more support for minority influence.
Explain minority influence
A form of social influence in which a minority of
people persuade others to adopt their beliefs, attitudes or behaviours.
Leads to internalisation or conversion, in which private attitudes are changed as well as public behaviours
Explain consistency in relation to minority influence
• If the minority take a consistent approach people start to consider the issue more carefully.This causes more people to take notice of the social issue and accept it
- Synchronic consistency: they’re all saying the same thing
- Diachronic consistency: they’ve been saying the same thing for some time.
• Consistent action.
Explain commitment in relation to minority influence
• When a minority adopts a committed approach to its position it may become difficult to ignore.
• E.g. the green party – core principles still the same
• Because joining a minority has a greater cost for the individual, they need to know the serious nature of the campaign or issue.
• Augmentation principle- majority pays attention! Therefore, more people take notice and accept social view
Explain flexibility in relation to minority influence
• Nemeth (1986) “consistency can be interpreted negatively”
• They must negate their position with the majority – have some flexibility / compromise to make changes.
• Balance between consistency and flexibility
Explain the process of change in relation to minority influence
- Consistent and passionate about something new
-Deeper processing is important in the process of conversion to a different, minority view point.
- Over time people are converted- the more it happens, the faster the rate of conversion.
What does the film ‘Twelve Angry Men’ relate to minority influence
The juror who believed in the defendant’s innocence was in a minority of one. He remained consistent in his belief that the defendant was innocent. He maintained his view throughout the discussion thus would have attracted the attention of the other jurors and caused them to think more deeply about the issue.
He showed commitment because he held an opinion that was unpopular and may even have attracted some derision, but he continued to hold it. This would – on the augmentation principle–
have persuaded some of the other jurors that he was not acting out of self-interest.
He was flexible as he was flexible by acknowledging that those who
considered the defendant guilty may have a point, but only on peripheral matters – above all else, the minority juror would have held firmly to his central belief in the defendant’s innocence.
One by one, the majority of jurors changed their belief. This is called the snowball effect.
Explain social influence
The process by which the individuals and groups change each other’s attitudes and behaviors. Includes conformity, obedience and minority influence
Explain social change
Thsi occurs when whole societies, rather than just individuals, adopt new attitudes, beliefs and ways of doing things
Explain the conditions necessary for social change through minority influence
Drawing attention to an issue which opposes the majority position (segregation in America) through social prof
Consistency-when minorities express their argument consistently they are taken more seriously. (Meta analysis of 97 studies [Wood et al 1994]) showed consistent minorities were particularly influential
Commitment when minorities are committed to their social cause. They are taken more seriously and people begin to take their view. This is especially strengthened if risk are associated with their view put forward (augmentation principle)
Flexibility- when minorities are flexible in their view people begin to take their view more seriously and their view takes more notice. This contributes to snowball effect which causes private social views to become publicly accepted
Explain social cryptomnesia
People have the memory that social change occurred but cannot remember how it happened
Public opinion changes gradually over time and is accepted as the norm
Explain the Social Impact Theory
Latané(1981) social force is generated by persuasion, threat , humor and embarrassment
Social influence occurs when the combined effect of free factors are significant enough:
- Strength- powerful, knowledge and consistent
2.immediacy-physical,social or psychological closeness of person providing influence
3.numbers-how many people are in the group
Explain terrorism and social change
Kruglanski (2003)- The aim of terrorism is to bring about social change when direct social force is not possible. It is usually arrived out by minority groups
Kruglanski eat al (2003) ‘fully committed suicide bombers motivation and quest from personal significance’ (devoted, motivated and committed)
Explain terrorism and social change
Kruglanski (2003)- The aim of terrorism is to bring about social change when direct social force is not possible. It is usually arrived out by minority groups
Kruglanski eat al (2003) ‘fully committed suicide bombers motivation and quest from personal significance’ (devoted, motivated and committed)
Explain Sparkman and Walton (2017)-dynamic and static norms study
Four experimental studios on meat consumption
‘well-rooted, highly visible and something you’d do every day in the presence of others’
In one experiment, participants from across the USA read two statements about eating less meat. One statement (static) describe that Americans had started to eat less meat whereas the other statement (dynamic) describe how some American are changing and now eat less meat
The participants in the dynamic group reported more interest in eating less meat
Evaluate the research support for NSI influences
Nolan et al 2008) investigated a social influence processes led to a reduction in energy consumption in a community.
Found a significant decrease in energy usage in the first group. (signs hung on doors)
Knowing that people were saving energy (NSI) led to social change
Explain why minority influence is only indirectly effective
Not at all social norms intervention have led to social change (change are slow, if at all)
Nemeth (1986)- influence is indirect and delayed
Indirect: majority are influenced on matters only related to the issues at hand, and not the central issue itself
Delays: it takes time for changes to happen
Addiction and acceptance from society from things such as smoking and drinking result in difficulties to bring success for change
Explain the argument against the role of deeper processing
Mackie (1987) disagreed and presented evidence that it is majority influence that creates deeper processing, if we do not share their views
We like to believe other people share our view and think in the same way as us
If the majority think differently, we are forced to think about their argument and reasoning
Methods of Zimbardo’s prison experiment
Male students were recruited to act as either guards or prisoners in a mock prison.
They were randomly given roles of prisoner or guard, and their behaviour was observed. The prisoners were ‘arrested’ as they went about their day, taken to ‘prison’ and given uniforms and numbers.
The guards also wore uniforms and mirrored glasses.
Results of Zimbardo’s prison experiment
Initially, the guards tried to assert their authority and the prisoners resisted by sticking together. The prisoners then became more passive and obedient, while the guards invested nastier punishments. The experiment was abandoned early because some prisoners became very distressed
Conclusion of Zimbardo’s prison experiment
Guards and prisoners adopted their social roles quickly. Zimbardo claims this shows that our social role can influence our behaviour- seemingly, well-balanced men became unpleasant and aggressive in the role of guard.
Evaluation of Zimbardo’s prison experiment
This was a controlled observation, so there was good control of variables.
However, because it was an artificial environment, the results cannot
really be generalised to real-life situations.
In terms of ethics, some participants found the experience very distressing.
There is also a problem with observer bias, as Zimbardo ran the prison himself, and later admitted that he became too personally involved in the situation.
The conclusion Zimbardo reached does not explain why only some of the participants acted according to their assigned roles.
Explain what is dispositional influence
Dispositions influences are individual characteristics that can affect a person’s behavior or actions. They are also known as internal factors.
Some examples of dispositional factors include:
personality traits, temperament, genetics, attitudes, gender, intelligence, and spiritual beliefs.
Explain what is internal validity
The degree of confidence that the causal relationship being tested is not influenced by other factors. Internal validity is concerned with factors within the experiment’s design.
For example: if a study is looking at how sleep affects academic success, the researcher would need to make sure that other factors, like caffeine, don’t also affect academic success
Explain what is external validity
The degree to which the results of a study can be applied to other situations, groups, or events. External validity is concerned with factors beyond the study itself.
For example: a study conducted in a laboratory setting may have high internal validity, but it may be difficult to replicate in the real world, so it may have low external validity.
