Approaches In Pyschology Flashcards
What are the four goals of psychology as a science
psychology has four goals as a science:
Description -tells us “what” occurred
Explanation -tells us “why” a behavior or a mental process occurred
Prediction - identifies conditions under which a future behavior or mental process is likely to occur
change - applies psychological knowledge to prevent unwanted behavior and to bring about desired change
Explain why psychology is a science
Objectivity : scientific observation should be recorded without bias and not influenced by other factors or other people
Control: should take place under controlled conditions
Predictability: results should be able to predict future behaviors
Hypothesis testing: theories should be tested to support or disprove a theory
Replication : if something is replicated and they find the same results- this should confidence in the study
Explain why there are different approaches to psychology
Each approach looks at human behavior from a different perspective. They all contribute to our understanding in different ways.
E.g: the biological approach shows us how genetic factors might contribute to some mental disorders, whereas the learning approach helps us to understand how we learn behaviors through experience.
Explain the usefulness of approaches in psychology
No approach is right and the other wrong, but some are more useful than others depending on what we try to explain.
Explain the story of Psychology as a science
Psychology had its roots in 17-19th century philosophy and was known as experimental philosophy
Rene Descartes, and his influence of Cartesian dualism (mind and body are separate entities, the brain is separated from the mind) was a starting point for psychology
The work of John Locke and his work on empiricism, the belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience and can be studied using the scientific method had influenced the emergence of psychology as science.
Finally, Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theories set the stage for the emergence of psychology (biological approach)
Explain what Wilhelm Wundt has achieved
Wilhelm Wundt published the first psychology book ‘Principles of Physiological psychology’ to establish the subject as an independent branch of science
He had opened the first psychology laboratory- the institute of experimental psychology. This lab was designated to the scientific study of psychological enquiry under controlled conditions.This was used to understand psychological processes of perception and sensations, rather than biological processes
Explain the theory of structuralism
Structuralism is a theory of consciousness that seeks to analyse the elements of mental experiences, such as sensation, mental images, and feelings, and how these elements combine to form more complex experiences
How is introspection used in order to investigate structuralism
Using controlled methods, such as introspection, to break down consciousness to its basic elements without sacrificing any of the properties of the whole.
This is done through the use of an highly trained assistant who would be given a stimulus ( ticking metronome) and would reflect on the experience.
They would report how the stimulus made them think and feel. The same stimulus, physical surroundings and instructions were given to each person.
How did introspection continue through Wundt
Wundt later recognised high mental processes were difficult to study using introspection and encouraged other to look for more appropriate methods, paving the way for other approaches such as scanning
This led to the development of the field of cultural psychology, based on general trends in behavior of groups of people
Explain the problem behind introspection
Introspection relies primarily on non-observable responses and although participants can report conscious experiences, they are unable to comment on unconscious factors relating to their behavior.
Introspection produced data that was subjective, so it became very difficult to establish general principles. This means that introspective experimental results are not reliably reproduced by other researchers.
Explain the subjectivity behind Wundt’s methods
It is difficult for modern psychologists to objectively study unobservable matter
This is contrast to the scientific methods
These methods are therefore difficult to replicate
Questions the methods validity- many aspects of our minds are outside of our conscious awareness (Nisbett and Wilson, 1977)
However, these methods are still used by modern scientific psychological research (Csikzentmihalyi and Hunter, 2003)
Explain the method of the contrasting research against the subjectivity of Wundt’s method (Nisbett and Wilson)
Nisbett and Wilson (1977)- staged two different interviews with the same individual- a lecturer who spoke English with a European accent - one condition was warm and friendly, the other cold and distant.
118 undergraduates were asked to evaluate him
Explain the results of the contrasting research against the subjectivity of Wundt’s method (Nisbett and Wilson)
Those who heard the warm interview rated his appearance, mannerism and accent as appealing .However, they rated the ‘other’ instructor with dislike
Explain the conclusion of the contrasting research against the subjectivity of Wundt’s method (Nisbett and Wilson)
Results indicated that global evaluations of a person can be induced altered evaluations of the persons attributes, even when there is sufficient information to allow for independent assessments of them.
Furthermore, ptps were unaware of this influence of global evaluation on ratings of attributes. Ptps who saw the cold instructor believed that the direction of influence was opposite to the true direction. They reported that their dislike of the instructor had no effect on their rating of attributes but that their dislike of his attributes had lowered their global evaluation of him
Explain the method of the supporting research against the subjectivity of Wundt’s method (Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter 2003)
American youths were asked to rate environmental factors and personal happiness; reported happiness varied significantly both by day of the week and time of day
Explain the results of the supporting research against the subjectivity of Wundt’s method (Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter 2003)
schools was rated below average and social, active and passive leisure activities were associated with varying degrees of happiness
Happiness was low when alone and high with friends
Explain the conclusion of the supporting research against the subjectivity of Wundt’s method (Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter 2003)
Higher SES and age correlated with lower levels of happiness but did not gender or sex- younger people who spent more time at school and social activities were the happiest
Explain the learning approach of Behaviorism
The behaviorist approach rejects the vagueness of introspection and instead focuses on how we are a product of our learning experience and environment.
who was involved in the development in research of the behaviorist approach and how were they involved
Founder- JB Watson
Theory of classic conditioning- Ivan Pavlov
Operant conditioning- b.F. Skinner
Explain the method in Little Albert leaned fear experiment ( Watson and Rainer- 1920)
The participant was an 11-month-old boy called ‘little Albert’. He showed no fear of white fluffy objects such as rats or rabbits.
The researchers tried to create a conditioned response to these objects.
A white rat was placed in front of little Albert. As he reached out for it, a metal bar was struck loudly behind his head.
This was repeated twice at first, then five more times a week later.
Explain the results in Little Albert leaned fear experiment ( Watson and Rainer- 1920)
When little Albert was shown a rat, he would start to cry.
This also extended to other white fluffy objects, such as a white Santa Claus beard.
Explain the conclusion in Little Albert leaned fear experiment ( Watson and Rainer- 1920)
A fear response to white fluffy objects had been conditioned in little Albert, showing that abnormal behaviour can be learned.
Explain the evaluation in Little Albert leaned fear experiment ( Watson and Rainer- 1920)
The experiment was very unethical- such an experiment could not be repeated today.
Not everyone goes on to develop a fear or phobia after a negative situation, so learning theory cannot be the full story.
It was a laboratory study, so it lacks ecological validity as the situation was artificial.
However, the results support Pavlov’s idea of classical conditioning.
Explain the assumption behind the behaviorism approach
Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior , as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion. Observable (external) behavior can be objectively and scientifically measured
Psychology is a science so behavior must be measured in highly controlled environments to establish cause and effect
When born our mind is blank
There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals. Research can be done on animal and humans .
Behavior is a result of stimulus - response (all behavior, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus- response association)
All behavior is learnt from the environment. We learn new behavior through classical or operant conditioning
Explain what a stimulus is
Stimulus: anything, internal or external, that brings about a response
Explain what a response is
Response: any reaction in the presence of the stimulus
Explain what reinforcement is
Reinforcement: the process by which a response is strengthened
Explain what is classic conditioning and how did Pavlov first described this process of learning
Classic conditioning involves pairing a response naturally caused by one stimulus with another, previously neutral stimulus. This is learning by association and refers to the conditioning of reflexes and involves associating a new stimulus with an innate bodily reflex
Pavlov first described this process of learning, by testing it on dogs
Explain the result of classical conditioning in Pavlov’s experiment (before conditioning)
First Pavlov established that meat caused the dog to salivate
Unconditioned stimulus (FOOD) = Unconditioned response (SALIVA)
Explain the result of classical conditioning in Pavlov’s experiment (before conditioning)
Then Pavlov established a tone that did not cause the dogs to salivate
Explain the result of classical conditioning in Pavlov’s experiment (during conditioning)
He then presented the tone with the food.(The dog is salivating in response to the food.)
Unconditioned Stimulus (FOOD) = Neutral Stimulus (BELL) = unconditioned response (SALIVA)
Explain the result of classical conditioning in Pavlov’s experiment (after conditioning)
After several parings of the tone and food, Pavlov found that the dog would salivate to the tone when it was presented alone
Conditioned stimulus (BELL) -= conditioned response (SALIVA)
Explain unconditioned stimulus
The stimulus that causes the reflex response before conditioning. It is the stimulus that naturally produces the response
Explain unconditioned response
The innate (reflex) response to a stimulus that has not been conditioned
Explain conditioned stimulus
The stimulus which, after repeated pairings with the unconditioned stimulus, produces the response
Explain conditioned response
The response that occurs after exposure to the conditioned stimulus
Explain Operant conditioning
All behavior is learnt as a result of consequences in our environment- operant conditioning.
This involves learning through the consequences (positive and negative) of behavioral responses, in order to modify and shape behavior.
Explain how positive reinforcement supports a response
Increases the likelihood of a response occurring because it involves a reward for the behavior
What are some examples of positive reinforcement
The worker gets paid a bonus for working hard
The dogs get a treat for returning when called
The child gets dessert or eating her vegetables
Reward points are given for good work
Explain how negative reinforcement supports a response
Increases the likelihood of a response occurring because it involves the removal of, or escaping from, unpleasant consequences (e.g leads to stopping or avoiding a shock)
What are some examples of negative reinforcement
Baby is given a pacifier by the parent to stop it crying
Man takes painkillers to relive a headache
Woman waking up to turn off an alarm to stop hearing the noise
Explain what a punishment is
The consequences is receiving something unpleasant which decreases the probability of the behavior being repeated (e.g the behavior leads to an electric shock or a smack)
What are some examples of a punishment
Being forced to go timeout
Getting smacked
Receiving an electric shock
When should Operant conditioning be applied
The associations between responses and consequences have to be made close together in time for learning to occur.
What is Operant conditioning applied for and what are some examples of its use
Operant conditioning has been applied to the treatment of behavior (behavior shaping)
E.g: social skills for training for offenders, and token economy system used in institutions whereby tokens are given as a secondary reinforcement for good behavior
Explain Behaviorism and its relation to gaming (Wong-2008)
Used to explain addiction to video games ‘5 creepy ways video games are trying to get you addicted’
Gaming provides reinforcements contingencies and rewards depending upon certain behaviors
Games can put special rewards behind a loot box which needs to be paid for.However, the rarity of the game is randomised.
Games can punish you for not logging in and staying active through punishing your character/world.
Games reward you for logging in and staying active through daily rewards.
Games can reward players for using money in order to have a compete advantage thus punishing players who don’t. (Pay to win)
Games can create unique skins/ items which can only be unlocked through money or dedication thus convincing players to pay/work for it
Explain the strengths of the behaviorism approach
Behaviorism is very scientific. Theories are testable and supported by rigorous experimental research- uses the experimental method which helps to establish cause and effect, objective.
It influences all areas of psychology
Replicable- can be repeated due to high control so has reliability
Mainly quantitative data - easy to analyse
Behaviorist explanations can be applied to the real word to explain everyday behavior such as phobias and has produced many practical applications.
Useful applications to education, child rearing (super Nanny)
It provides strong counter-argument to the nature side of the ‘nature-nurture’ debate
Explain the limitations of the behaviorism approach
Many forms of learning cannot be satisfactorily explained by classical and operant conditioning e.g insight learning.
Approach ignores important mental processes involved in learning
Reductionist- only takes into account nurture, rules out any influence of anything else
Deterministic- ignores free will
Lack of ecological validity due to highly controlled experiments- issues with generalisability
Ethical issues- not all research meets ethical guidelines
Lack of qualitative data- no thoughts or feeelings known
Much data has been obtained from species such as rats, dogs and pigeons but the relevance of these findings to humans is dubious.
What / When was Watson’s and Rayner’s experiment
Little Albert- learn fear experiment
1920
What / When was Skinner’s box experiment
Skinner’s rats showing operant conditioning
1938
Explain the method in Skinner’s box rats showing operant conditioning experiment (1938)
Skinner created a ‘skinner box’ in which he placed one rat at a time.
Each Skinner box contained a variety of different stimuli- a speaker, lights, a floor which gave an electric shock and a food dispenserwhich dispensed food when a lever was pressed.
A hungry rat was placed in the Skinner box.
The time taken for the rats to learn that pressing the lever would release food was recorded.
Explain the result in Skinner’s box rats showing operant conditioning experiment (1938)
Initially, the rat would run around the cage until it accidentally pressed the lever and it was rewarded with food.
The more the rat was put back in the box, the quicker they got at learning where the lever was.
Explain the conclusion in Skinner’s box rats showing operant conditioning experiment (1938)
Rats can learn behaviour through operant conditioning.
A behaviour such as pressing a lever can be positively reinforced by receiving food.
Skinner also tested negative reinforcement: he showed that rats could learn to prevent an
electric shock by pressing the lever when a light came on.
Explain the evaluation in Skinner’s box rats showing operant conditioning experiment (1938)
Skinner’s experiment has been hugely influential in promoting the idea of behavioural psychology.
However, his experiment did use animals, which means results might not be generalisable to humans.
His sample size was also small, reducing the reliability of his results.
What / when was the Bandura et al experiment (Bobo doll)
Imitation of aggressive models
1961
Explain the method of Bandura et al experiment (Bobo doll)
36 girls and 36 boys with a mean age of 52 months took part in the study.
The study had a match participant design (children were matched on ratings of aggressive behaviour shown at their nursery school) and had three conditions.
In the first condition, children observed aggressive adult models playing with a Bobo doll (an inflatable figure with a weight in the bottom)- e.g. hitting it with a mallet.
In the second condition, children observed non-aggressive models playing with other toys and ignoring the Bobo doll.
In the third condition was a control condition in which children had no exposure to the models.
The children’s behaviour was observed for 20 minutes in a room containing aggressive toys (for example, a Bobo doll and a mallet) and non-aggressive toys (for example, a tea set and crayons).
Explain the results of Bandura et al experiment (Bobo doll)
Children exposed to aggressive models imitated a lot of their aggressive behaviour.
Children in the non-aggressive and controlled condition showed barely any aggressive behaviour.
Aggressive behaviour was slightly higher in the control condition than in the non-aggressive condition.
Explain the conclusions of Bandura et al experiment (Bobo doll)
Aggressive behaviour is Learned through imitation of others behaving aggressively.
Evaluated Bandura et al experiment (Bobo doll)
This study provides evidence for social learning theory. There was strict control of the variable, meaning that the results are likely to be reliable and the study can be replicated.
However, it has low ecological validity because the participants were not in a natural situation. It is also difficult to generalise the results because a limited sample was studied- the children were all from the same school
. The study encouraged aggression in children- this could be an ethical problem.
Why is SLT different to conditioning
‘ if I work hard, I to will get a certificate’
SLT is not just about learning, it involves cognitive processes such as watching, paying attention, remembering, choice of role models.
Explain the social learning theory
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.
Learning can occur simply through observing others – also known as MODELS – in our environment
Explain Albert Bandura and the SLT
• Learning occurs from OBSERVING others.
• The mind, behaviour and the environment ALL play a role in learning behavior.
• This deals with the major criticism of Behaviourist approach, which ignores mental processes, by taking account of cognitive processes.
Explain vicarious reinforcement
• We learn through MODELLING - Modelling involves learning through the observation of other people (models), which may lead to imitation (repetition) of the behaviour.
• Only if behaviour is seen to be rewarded.
Explain the four mediational processes
ATTENTION: The extent to which we notice certain behaviours.
RETENTION: The individual remembers what they have observed
MOTOR REPRODUCTION: The individual replicates the behaviour shown by the
model
MOTIVATION: The individual seeks to demonstrate the behaviour that they have
observed
Explain the four mediational processes
ATTENTION: The extent to which we notice certain behaviours.
RETENTION: The individual remembers what they have observed
MOTOR REPRODUCTION: The individual replicates the behaviour shown by the
model
MOTIVATION: The individual seeks to demonstrate the behaviour that they have
observed
Explain the difference types of models for the Social influence theory
• LIVE MODELS – physically present in our environment e.g. mother, teacher, friend
• SYMBOLIC MODELS – e.g. people in films, books, cartoons etc.
• SYMBOLLIC MODELLING is considered to have a greater effect on cultures where media is widely available.
Explain Video Nasties (AO2)
Cumberbatch (2001) – video nasties are more likely to frighten children than to make them aggressive towards others
Social deprivation, child abuse and early exposure to violence at home
Explain the real world application of Social learning theory affecting children (Akers)
Akers (1998) suggested that the probability of someone engaging in criminal activity increases when they are exposed to models who commit crime and identify with them and develop the expectation of positive consequences of criminal behaviour.
Explain the importance of cognitive factors in learning
• Neither classical nor operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning on their own
• Humans and many animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions.
- More comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of mediational processes.
Explain over-reliance on evidence from lab studies within the Bobo doll experiment (SLT)
• Behaviours of children were observed in lab settings
- Demand characteristics
Explain the influence of biological factors in Bandura et al experiment
• Boys were more aggressive in the Bobo doll experiments than girls
- Hormonal factors- levels of testosterone
Explain the influence of biological factors in Van goozen et al experiment
• Van Goozen et al. (1994)- aggression in participants who were transitioning
to another gender.
- 35 female-to-male and 15 male-to-female people completed questionnaires to assess proneness to aggression
- Before and after receiving hormone treatment to change gender
- Female-to-male reported increased aggressive proneness.
Explain the influence of biological factors (Flanagan 2000)
- Flanagan (2000) testosterone as a primary cause of aggression.
- Serotonin and MAOA gene
Explain cultural difference in behaviour seen through Margaret Mead (1935) , The Mundugmor (Biwat) and Tchambuil
• Margaret Mead (1935) found The Arapesh is an example of a non- aggressive culture in which aggression is not admired (reinforced) or modelled by adults.
• The Mundugmor (Biwat) show the opposite pattern, in which violence is the norm and status is determined by the amount of aggression shown.
• Tchambuil– women were impersonal and dominant and men were less responsible and emotionally dependent
- Children understood their role in society and by gender
Explain Bandura’s idea of the reciprocal determinism and how does it challenge a deterministic view
• Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism:
- We are influenced by our external environment and we exert influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform and personal factors
A person’s shyness (personal factor) affects how they interact with others (behavior), which in turn influences how people treat them (environment), creating a feedback loop. (Focuses on interaction and mutual influence)
This contrasts a deterministic view which implies a one way cause where behavior is caused by external or internal factors out of our control.
Explain the negatives of the reduction approach
• Very basic cause and effect mechanisms
• Behaviour is a result of learning
• Ignores biological explanations
What / when was Gottesman experiment
A meta-analysis of twin studies
1991
Explain the method of Gottesman (1991) a meta-analysis of twin studies experiment
Gottesman carried out a meta-analysis of approximately 40 twin studies.
Explain the results of Gottesman (1991) a meta-analysis of twin studies experiment
It was found that having an identical twin with schizophrenia gave you a 48% chance of developing the condition. This reduced to 17% in non-identical twins.
Explain the conclusion of Gottesman (1991) a meta-analysis of twin studies experiment
Schizophrenia has a strong genetic basis.
Evaluate Gottesman (1991) a meta-analysis of twin studies experiment
The meta-analysis was carried out on field studies, giving the research high ecological validity.
Because identical twins share 100% of their genes, it might be expected that both twins would always suffer from the same condition.
The fact that both twins had developed schizophrenia in only about half of the cases means that another factor must also be involved.
Identical twins tend to be treated more similarly than non-identical twins, and so the family environment might play a large role
What / when was Heston’s experiment
An adoption study of schizophrenia
1966
What / when was Heston’s experiment
An adoption study of schizophrenia
1966
Explain the method of Heston’s an adoption study of schizophrenia study (1966)
47 adopted children whose biological mothers had schizophrenia were studied. The control group consisted of 50 adopted children whose biological mothers were not diagnosed with schizophrenia.
The children were followed up as adults and were interviewed and given intelligence and personality tests.
Explain the results of Heston’s an adoption study of schizophrenia study (1966)
Of the experiment groups, 5 of the 47 were diagnosed with schizophrenia, compared to none in the control group.
Another 4 of the experimental group were classified as borderline schizophrenic by the researcher.
Explain the conclusion of Heston’s an adoption study of schizophrenia study (1966)
The study supports the view that schizophrenia has a genetic basis.
Evaluate Heston’s an adoption study of schizophrenia study (1966)
Interview data can be unrealistic and affected by social desirability bias.
However, interviews are a good way of getting data in a naturalistic way.
The adopted children whose mother did not suffer from any conditions might not have shown any symptoms of schizophrenia but it could not be completely ruled out.
Explain the biological approach
The biological approach combines psychology and biology to provide physiological explanations for human behavior
Biological psychology tries to explain how we think feel and behave in terms of physical factors within our body
Define physiology
It is the study of the body and its parts and how they function
Basic assumptions of the Biological approach
• Everything psychological is at first biological
• The approach investigates how biological structures and processes within the body impacts on behaviour.
• Much of human behaviour has a **physiological cause ** which may be genetically or environmentally altered.
• Psychologists should study the brain, nervous system and other biological systems, e.g. hormones, chemicals acting on the brain (neurochemicals)
• The mind lives in the brain (in contrast to the cognitive approach sees mental processes of the mind as being separate from the physical brain)
Define neurochemicals
Relates to the chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological / Physiological functioning
What are psychologists trying to determine about the influence of genes and environmental factors on behaviors and characteristics such as intelligence?
Psychologists are interested in trying to determine and provide evidence for the extent to which behaviours, or a characteristic such as intelligence, are the product of inheritance (genes), or environmental influences
What are the methods for investigating the extent to which psychological characteristics are affected by inheritance from parents and evolution genetic basis of behaviour:
➢twin studies
➢family studies
➢adoption studies
➢selective breeding
Why are psychologists interested in studying twins
In order to investigate the genetic basis of behavior
Why are psychologists interested in studying twins
In order to investigate the genetic bassi of behavior
Explain monozygotic
One zygote – these twins are formed when a fertilised cell splits into two and forms two separate embryos
Explain dizygotic
Two zygotes – these twins are formed when two separate eggs both become fertilised by different sperm cells
How do concordance rates in twin studies help determine whether a characteristic or trait is influenced by genetics
Concordance rates: agreement between
This refers to the extent to which a pair of twins share similar traits or characteristics i.e. there should be 100% concordance rates between MZ twins if a particular characteristic /trait is a genetic on DZ twins will show lower concordance rates Comparisons can be made between twins raised together and twins raisedapart
What did Francis Galton originally propose about inheritance in 1869, and how did his views evolve regarding the influence of genes and the shared environment in family studies?
1869 - Francis Galton ‘…all natural abilities are inherited’
• This is a simplistic viewpoint – Galton later had to agree that any resemblance between family relatives could be a result of both genes and shared environment
• However, with alcoholism for example, there is a suggestion of a biological predisposition to the addiction
Explain the process of adoption studies
These studies involve comparing a trait or characteristic betweenadopted children and their biological or adoptive parents.
Explain selective breeding
• This method involves artificially selecting male and female animals for a particular trait.
• These animals are then put together in order to breed and produce offspring.
• Selective breeding has been used to demonstrate how a number of behavioural characteristics may have a genetic basis. e.g. ‘maze bright’ rats
What evidence do twin, family, adoption, and selective breeding studies provide about the genetic basis of behavior, and how does the role of the environment compare?
• There is evidence from twin, family and adoption studies to suggest that certain behaviours, for example, intelligence, are genetically determined
• Research has shown that the environment can play more of a role in determining behaviour than genetics.
• Selective breeding studies have demonstrated how a number of behavioural characteristics, for example aggression, can have a genetic basis
What is the difference between genotype and phenotype, and how do genetic and environmental factors interact to shape observable characteristics?
• The basic units of heredity are called genes
• Genes function in pairs and the recombination of genes from parents to offspring provides the basis for genetic variability
• Genes only determine the potential for characteristics (genotype)
• The observable characteristics of an individual (phenotype) depend on the interaction of genetic and environmental factors.
What is the genotype
• The actual set of genes an individual has, or is made up of, is a genotype.
• The genetic material is made up of DNA, for sexually reproducing organisms, which are given by the sperm and egg of the parents.
What is a phenotype
• An individual’s anatomical features or observed traits, such as behavioural and physical characteristics (shape, metabolic activities, size, and colour, etc.),
fall under an individual’s phenotype.
• These behavioural characteristics and physical attributes are what determines an individual’s ability to reproduce and survive in the environment
What is the difference between genotypes and phenotypes
The genotype is the genetic programming that provides the phenotype
• To a large extent, an individual’s phenotype is determined by its genotype.
• However, genes are only part of the equation:
Genotype + environment = phenotype
What is an example of an individuals genes being affected by the environment
Hair colour:
•An individual’s genes determines whether or not they have hair on their head, but how long this hair remains depends on environmental factors, such as excess sunlight, chemicals used on the head, or poor diet.This shows that phenotype is influenced by the environment.
Explain what are recessive and dominant genes
• A gene can be recessive or dominant.
• A recessive gene only shows if the individual has two copies of the recessive gene. For example, the gene for blue eyes is recessive. You need two copies of the gene to have blue eyes.
• A dominant gene always shows, even if the individual only has one copy of the gene. For example, the gene for brown eyes is dominant. You only need one copy of the gene to have brown eyes (and two copies will still give you brown eyes!).
What is an example of recessive genes
bb = Recessive blue eyes
Bb/BB= Dominant brown eyes
What are the different forms of alleles called
Genes have different forms called alleles (recessive or dominant)
Explain heterozygous and homozygous
• Heterozygous– the genotype consists of two different genes, for example Bb
• Homozygous - the genotype consists of two genes that are the same, for example BB
How do identical twins demonstrate the interaction between genotype and environment, and what factors contribute to the differences observed between them?
• Identical twins are another good example of the interaction between inheritance (genotype) and environment.
• They have the same genetic makeup and they look alike, but they possess different phenotypes.
• Identical twins have differences that allow those who are close to them to tell them apart. Also, their fingerprints are different.
• Twins are genetically the same - any differences you may see between them – for example in personality, tastes and particular aptitudes – are due to differences in their experience or environment.
Define evolution
Evolution: the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
What concepts did Charles Darwin emphasise in evolutionary theory
Natural selection
Sexual selection
Explain natural selection
Animals with particular traits may provide their offspring with an advantages in their environment in order to survive and reproduce thereby passing on their ‘adaptive traits’ to their offspring.
These behaviours need to adapt to the environment that the animal is living in which is dependent on three principles:
➢ the principle of diversity- the variety within a species
➢the principle of interaction - which is how this variety of species adapt and fit in with the environment e.g. animals that breathe air wouldn’t be able to permanently live under water
➢the principle of differential amplification - those who adapt to their environment will reproduce and those that do not will die out.
Explains sexual selection
• Males have an abundance of sperm and can reproduce with as many females as they want.
• Females however, are limited by the amount of eggs produced and the fact that she has to carry the baby for 9 months and then raise it till the age of 18.
• Females therefore will be more particular about who fathers their children due to the investment they have to make.
What research methods are used in the biological approach
• The biological approach draws on concepts from the hard sciences and research tends to be highly scientific in nature
• The most common methods include laboratory experiments and observations
• Objective brain recording and scanning techniques are also used
Explain PET Scans
• PET Scans: positron emission tomography- shows which patterns of the brain are active during a task.
Explain CAT Scans
• CAT scans: detects damaged parts of the brain, tumours and blood clots.
Explain MRI
• MRI: detect small tumours and provide detailed information about structure
Explain fMRI
• fMRI: structural and functional information
Explain SQUID magnetometry
• SQUID magnetometry: produces accurate images of brain activity by measuring the magnetic fields generated when neurones are activated.
Explain the strengths of the biological approach
• It is a scientific approach. Highly scientific methods e.g. fMRIs, EEGs & twin studies lead to reliable data.
• Scientific approach lends credence to study of psychology – establishes psychology as a respectable science
• Impact of biology on behaviour can lead to treatment and intervention to those suffering e.g. anti-depressants
• Understanding how an abnormal brain works can shed light on normal brain functioning
• Measurements can be objective as it can be performed by machines which have no vested interest in the outcome e.g. PET scans, EEGs etc. Use of complex machinery allows accurate and precise measurements
Explain the limitations of the biological approach
• It is a deterministic approach as it believes that we are determined by our physiological, genetic or evolutionary make- up. Thus stating that there is no free will.
• This approach is reductionist by stating that all human behaviour can be explained through biological processes and we are therefore not unique as individuals. It is also dehumanising to present humans as ‘biological machines’
• Biological approach ignores the role of the environment etc. It should be used in combination which is known as the biopsychosocial approach.
• Research may focus on rare conditions that have little impact on the everyday lives of most people
• Complex machinery operated by humans and therefore measurements could be subject to human error
• Correlations frequently employed – cannot determine cause and effect
• Small or restricted samples make findings difficult to generalise
• Laboratory experiments lack ecological validity
• Cannot separate nature from nurture
Define the cognitive approach 1960s
Cognitive approach: How our mental processes (for example, thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behaviour
Define the cognitive approach (AQA syllabus)
The cognitive approach: the study of internal mental processes, the role of schema, the use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience
What si the role of cognitive psychologists
Cognitive psychologists study processes indirectly by making inferences about what is going on inside people’s minds, based on their behaviour (reductionist approach)
Explain the assumptions of the cognitive approach
• Our mental systems have a limited capacity:
The amount of information that can be processed will be influenced by how
demanding the task is and how much other information is processed.
• A control mechanisms oversees all mental processes:
This will require more processing power for new tasks, leaving less available
for everything else
• There is a two way flow of information:
We take in information from the world, process it and react to it. We also use
our knowledge and experiences to understand the world.
Explain the three main research methods used in the cognitive approach
• 1. laboratory experiments- very scientific and reliable.
• 2. Field experiments – takes place in a natural situation
• 3. Natural experiments – making observations in a naturally occurring situation.
Explain the ecological validity in the three main research method for the cognitive approach
Laboratory experiments: Low, because they take place in a controlled, artificial environment that may not reflect real-world situations.
Field experiments: Moderate to high, as they occur in a natural environment, making the behavior of participants more realistic.
Natural experiments: High, as they are based on naturally occurring situations, providing insights into real-world behaviors.
Explain the control of variables in the three main research methods for the cognitive approach
Lavatory experiments: High, as researchers can manipulate independent variables and control extraneous variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Field experiments: Moderate, as some variables can be controlled, but external factors may influence the results.
Natural experiments: Low, as researchers cannot manipulate variables, making it harder to infer causation.
Explain the individual differences between participants in the three main research methods for the cognitive approach
Laboratory experiments: These are minimized through random assignment and standardized procedures, making results more reliable.
Field experiments: These may be more pronounced due to less control over the experimental setup compared to laboratory experiments.
Natural experiments: These may have a significant impact since there is no random assignment or experimental control.
Explaining the information processing model
Used to explain mental processes.
Used to make inferences (intelligent guesses) about mental processes.
Compares a human to a computer
Define schema
A ‘package’ of ideas and information developed through experience. Helps you to organise and interpret information and experiences. This affects behaviour
Explain the role of schema using an example
If someone has a positive schema with a dog e.g the dog was playful to the person and the person enjoyed petting the dog. Then they would associate all dogs as friendly through this positive experience. Therefore , showing signs of enthusiasm when they see a dog and approach them.
If someone has a negative schema with a dog e.g the dog was barking/biting the person and the person was afraid. Then they would associate all dogs as unfriendly through this negative experience. Therefore, they would show avoid interacting with dogs and exhibit defensive behaviour.
Explain the role of schema if the schema is inconsistent with it
Accommodation:
When new information conflicts with an existing schema, the schema must be adjusted or restructured to resolve the discrepancy.
This occurs when the existing framework is no longer sufficient to explain the new experience.
Example: If someone with a “friendly dog” schema encounters an aggressive dog, they may need to modify their schema to include the possibility that not all dogs are friendly.
Explain the role of schema if the schema is consistent with it
Assimilation:
When new information aligns with an existing schema, it is integrated into the schema without changing it.
This strengthens the schema by reinforcing what the individual already believes or expects.
Example: If someone’s schema for dogs is that they are friendly, encountering a playful dog would assimilate into the schema and reinforce their belief.
explain the three different types of schema
• Role schemas- these are ideas about the behaviour which is expected from someone in a certain role, setting or situation.
• Event schemas- these are also called scripts. They contain information about what happens in a situation.
• Self schemas – these contain information about ourselves based on physical characteristics and personality, as well as beliefs and values. Self schemas can affect how you act.
Explain the problems of schema
Schemas can stop people from learning new information:
- Prejudice and stereotypes can be an outcome of schemas.
- Schema which hold expectations or beliefs about a certain subgroup of people may bias the way we process incoming information.
This can lead to faulty conclusions and unhelpful behaviour. Can lead to perception errors
What / when was Bartlett
The war of the ghosts
1932
Explain the method of The War of the Ghosts
English participants were asked to read a Native American folk tale, called ‘The War of the Ghosts’.
It was an unfamiliar story, full of strange and unusual names, ideas and objects. It also had a different structure to an average English story.
The participants were asked to recall the story after different lengths of time.
Explain the results of The War of the Ghosts
All of the participants changed the story to fit their own schemas. The details in the story became more ‘English’, the story started to contain elements of English culture and details and emotions were added. As the length of time between hearing and recalling the story increased, the amount of information remembered decreased.
Explain the conclusion of The War of the Ghosts
People use their own schema’s to help interpret and remember the world around them.
Explain the evaluation of The War of the Ghosts
This study was conducted in a laboratory, so it lacks ecological validity. But it was highly influential at the time as it paved the way for further cognitive research
Explain the emergence of cognitive neuroscience
1860s Paul Broca identified damage to the frontal lobe could permanently affect speech.
1956 MIT Formation of ‘Cognitive Science’
1970s Formation of ‘Cognitive Neuroscience’ (Miller)
Aims to study biological structures that influence mental processes
Last 20 years – fMRI & PET scan use had developed to look at the living brain
E.g Episodic & semantic memory may be located at different sides of the pre-frontal cortex
E.g hunger may be controlled by the hypothalamus
E.g empathy may be developed by the mirror neuron system
Explain the methods involved in brain scanning
• Lesion studies- see if brain damage changes behaviour, by removing parts of the brain (normally rats and mice)
• Electrophysiology- using electric and magnetic fields to measure brain activity and brain waves
• Neuroimaging – pinpointing areas of the brain which are active when a task is performed.
Explain the function for the Corpus Callosum
Corpus Callosum:
Bridge between the two sides of the brain.
Integrates motor, sensory and cognitive performance
Explain the function for the Cereberal Cortex
Cerebral cortex: higher level processes such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and memory.
Explain the function of the Thalamus
Thalamus: senses except smell
Explain the function of the Frontal lobe
Frontal lobe: behaviour, language , personality
Explain the function of the Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus: Homeostasis
Explain the function of the Hippocampus
Hippocampus: regulates emotions, learning and memory
Explain the function of the Amygdala
Amygdala: Processes emotions
Explain the function of the Pituitary gland
Pituitary gland: produces and releases hormones
Explain the function of the Medulla oblongata and brain stem:
Medulla oblongata and brain stem:
Unconscious brain Controls heart rate, breathing, swallowing
Explain the function of the Cerebellum
Cerebellum:
Co-ordination
Balance
Explain the function of the pineal gland
Pineal gland: Melatonin- sleep wake cycle
What is the psychodynamic perspective
A perspective that describes the different forces (dynamics), most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.
Explain the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
• The psychodynamic approach states that unconscious forces in our mind, determine our thoughts, feelings and behaviour (the term dynamic refers to the ongoing movement of these forces).
• Our behaviour as adults is strongly influenced by our childhood experiences.
• Abnormal behaviour is the result of mental conflict.
• The mind can be divided into three levels of consciousness, which can be illustrated by the iceberg analogy. The unconscious mind, which is hidden below the surface, has the most influence on our personality.
Explain the unconscious mind
Things we are unaware of and can not become aware of e.g instincts, deeply buried memories , irrational urges, violent motives
Explain the preconscious mind
Things we could be aware of if we wanted or tried e.g memories , stored knowledge
Explain the conscious mind
The small amount of mental activity we know about e.g thoughts, perceptions
Explain the ID
The ID (the ‘it’)
• Primitive part of our personality.
• Operates on the pleasure principle (gets what it wants)
• ID is a mass of unconscious drives and instincts
• Only the ID is present at birth
Explain the Ego
The Ego (the ‘I)’
• Develops around the age of two years.
• Works on the reality principle and is the mediator between the ID and SUPEREGO
• Makes the person aware of other people’s feelings and that it cant always have its own way
• Its role is to reduce the conflict between the demands of the ID & the super ego
• It manages this by employing a number of defence mechanisms (to be covered later)
Explain the Supergo
The Superego (the ‘Other I’)
• Formed around the age of five
• It is our internalised sense of right & wrong
• Represents the moral standards of the child’s same-sex parent
• Punishes the ego for wrongdoing (through guilt)
Why does the Id, Ego and Superego not work together
• Ego too weak – allows id and superego to dominate
• Id too strong – selfish, out of control, could become psychopathic
• Superego too strong – strict, anxious, obsessive –depression, anxiety, OCD
Explain psychosexual stages
• Freud believed that children are born with a libido – a sexual (pleasure) urge
• There are a number of stages of childhood, during which the child seeks pleasure from a different ‘object’
• To be psychologically healthy, we must successfully complete each stage
• Mental abnormality can occur if a stage is not completed successfully – the person becomes ‘fixated’
Explain the oral stage
• The mouth is the main focus of pleasure during this stage- starts from birth to 18 months
• The child enjoys tasting and sucking.
• The mother’s breast is the object of desire
• Successful completion of this stage is demonstrated by weaning – eating independently
Consequence of unresolved conflict:
• Oral Fixation – sarcastic, critical, sensitive to rejection –
overeats and drinks, bite nails, may smoke.
Explain the anal stage
• Starts from 18 months to 3 years
• Defecation is main source of pleasure
• Successful completion marked by potty training
Consequence of unresolved conflict:
• Anally retentive - very tidy, stubborn, likes order and being in control, perfectionist, obsessive
• Anally expulsive - Thoughtless, messy
Explain the phallic stage
• starts from around age 3-5 years
• Form of pleasure is the genital area
• Oedipus complex - Boy wants his mother as his ‘primary love object’ & wants his father out of the way
• Electra complex – Girls experience penis envy; they desire their father, as the penis is the primary love object and hate their mother
Consequence of unresolved conflict;
• Phallic personality – narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual
Explain the latency stage
• Age 5 to puberty approximately
• Earlier conflicts are repressed
• Sexual urges sublimated into sports and other hobbies
• Focus on developing same sex friendships
• No particular requirements for successful completion
• Calm before the storm of puberty!
Explain the Genital stage
• starts from puberty into adulthood
• Focus on genitals but not to same extent as phallic stage
• Task is to develop healthy adult relationships
• This should happen if earlier stages have been negotiated successfully
Consequence of unresolved conflict:
• Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
What / when was Freud’ study
The case study of Little Hans
(1909)
Explain the method of the little Hans case
Freud carried out a study of a child called Hans who had a phobia of horses. Hans was observed by his father, who made notes of Han’s dreams and the things he said and passed them onto Freud for analysis.
Explain the results of the Little Hans case study
Han’s was afraid of horses because he thought they might bite him or fall on him. During the study he developed an interest in his ‘widdler’ (penis). His mum had told him not to play with it or she’d cut it off. Hans told his dad about a dream where he was married to his mum and his dad was now his grandfather.
Explain the conclusion of the Little Hans case
Freud’s interpretation was that Hans had reached the phallic stage of development and showed evidence of the ‘Oedipus complex’- he wanted to have an exclusive relationship with his mother and was jealous of his father. Hans had sexual feelings for his mother, shown partly by his dream of marrying her. The horse symbolised Han’s father because, to him, they both had big penises.
His fear of horses is an example of displacement- a defence mechanism that protected him from his real fear of his father. Hans suffered from castration anxiety. He was afraid that he would be castrated by his father if he found out about his feelings for his mother. This was symbolised by Han’s fear that a horse would bite him.
Explain the evaluation of the Little Hans case
This was a case study, meaning that it provided lots of detailed data about one subject, but it does mean the results cannot be generalised. The findings provided evidence to support Freud’s theories.
However, the results were based entirely on observations and interpretation. This means a cause and effect relationship cannot be established. There could be other explanations- for example, Han’s anxiety may have come from his mother threatening to cut his penis off. Also, before the study, Hans had been frightened by a horse falling down in the street, which could explain his fear of them. Freud analysed information from Han’s father, so the results could be biased
Explain defence mechanisms
• The constant disagreements between the id, the ego and the
superego can lead to a lot of anxiety
• E.g. You want that bar of chocolate but you know you’re meant to be on a diet – you feel guilty if you have it but unsatisfied if you don’t – anxiety either way!
• So the mind develops various methods of defending itself – for example you tell yourself that it’s ok to eat the chocolate because it’s good for you (rationalisation)
Explain the defence mechanism: denial
Denial: You completely reject the thought or feeling and completely refuse to acknowledge some aspect of reality. Unwanted reality is ignored and blocked from conscious awareness.
E.g: My partner wouldnever cheat on me
Explain the defence mechanism : repression
• Repression: Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind. The ego stops unwanted and painful thoughts from becoming conscious.
E.g: Hmmm, perhaps my partner isn’t as perfect as I thought. Can’t think about that now… got to go and buy some new shoes instead.
Explain the defence mechanism : Displacement
• Displacement: you transfer feelings from true sources of distressing emotion onto a substitute target.
• Negative impulse is redirected
It’s not my fault my marriage is over. It’s the newspapers’. And those women for selling their stories… And my partner for not being there enough… And my mum’s for not breastfeeding me. I hate them all
Explain psychological disorders
• Psychological disorders are defence mechanisms against repressed emotional problems and impulses
• The symptoms of a disorder have a hidden meaning that can be decoded (according to Freud)
Define a Freudian slip:
A Freudian slip, also called parapraxis, is an error in speech, memory, or physical action that occurs due to the interference of an unconscious subdued wish or internal train of thought.
what topics has Freud influenced in psychology
• Freud has had a huge influence on Psychology:
- personality disorders
- Development
- Abnormalities
- Moral development
- Gender
- Attachment- experiences as children and our parents and later development
Explain why we cannot make universal claims about human nature based on studies about individuals with psychological abnormalities?
Lack of Generalizability:
Individuals with psychological abnormalities do not represent the general population, making it difficult to apply findings to broader human nature. Such studies often focus on unique or extreme cases that may not reflect typical behaviors or experiences.
Highly subjective interpretation:
Analysis of abnormal behaviors, especially in psychodynamic approaches, often relies on subjective interpretations by researchers or therapists. This subjectivity can lead to biased conclusions that may not be universally valid or reliable.
Lack of scientific rigor:
Many studies in this area lack the controlled, empirical methodologies used in other scientific disciplines. For instance, Freud’s methods, like case studies and introspection, are difficult to replicate or objectively verify.Without rigorous experimental controls, it is challenging to establish cause-and-effect relationships or rule out alternative explanations.
What did Karl popper suggest about the psychodynamic approach
It does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification as it is not open to empirical testing and the possibility of disproval.
• Unconscious is difficult to test
• Pseudoscience
Practical application – supporting research of the psychodynamic approach
• Psychoanalysis – range of techniques used to access the unconscious
- Dream analysis and hypnosis
- Useful therapeutic tool for neuroses
- However unable to treat more severe mental health disorders such as schizophrenia
How does the concept of psychic determinism explain slips of the tongue and challenge the idea of free will?
• No such thing as an accident
• Slip of the tongue is driven by the unconscious forces and has deep symbolic meaning
• Free will is an illusion- conflict from childhood
What is gender bias in the psychodynamic approach, and why is it problematic for the theory to be applied equally to both sexes?
• Gender bias- alpha bias
• Femininity was failed masculinity and that we can never believe that the 2 sexes are equal in position or worth.
• Horney broke away from Freudian theory and criticised the approach.
• Dismissing women and their sexuality in such a way is problematic because psychoanalysis is still influential today and many female patients are treated by it.
• With such a clear bias it is inappropriate for the approach to be applied to both sexes
What / when was Aronoff’s theory
Job demands and the hierarchy of needs
1967
Explain the method of the Aronoff theory
Aronoff compared people in two jobs in the British West Indies-
fishermen and cane cutters.
Cane cutters got paid according to how much cane was cut by the whole group, even when they were off sick. So they had high job security, although wages were low.
In contrast, fishermen worked alone, doing more challenging work. So they were less secure in their jobs, although they earned more overall.
Both groups of people were assessed to see which level they were at on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Explain the results of the Aronoff theory
More cane cutters were at the lower levels of hierarchy, still trying to achieve safety and security than fisherman, many of whom had satisfied the lower levels of the hierarchy.
Explain the conclusion of the Aronoff theory
Only those men who had satisfied lower levels of the pyramid would choose to become fishermen, allowing them to develop high self-esteem. This suggests that people cannot reach the higher levels of Maslow’s hierarchy until they have satisfied the lower levels.
Explain the evaluation of the Aronoff theory
The study supports Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory and it has ecological validity as it studied people in their natural environment.
However, it only studied people from our culture, so the results cannot be generalised to the wider population
Explain the background of humanistic psychology
Humanistic psychology emerged in the United States in the 1950’s largely as a result of the work of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
What the three main topics covered in humanistic psychology
• Free Will
• Self-actualisation (Maslow)
• The self, congruence & conditions of worth (Rogers)
Explain lesson outcomes in humanistic psychology
Aspire:
To be able to analyse the difference between Maslow’s work and Roger’s work
Challenge:
To understand and describe what free will, self-actualisation, the self, congruence & conditions of worth means in relation to the approach
To apply the hierarchy of needs to explaining human behaviour
Explain the basic assumption that every individual is unique
Humanists believe that we are all different and that we should be treated as such.
This way of viewing people as unique individuals is called idiographic.
Explain the basic assumption that every individual is unique (humanistic approach)
Humanists believe that we are all different and that we should be treated as such.
This way of viewing people as unique individuals is called idiographic.
Explain the basic assumption of free will (humanistic approach)
The humanist approach is based on the core assumption that we have free will, that we have the ability to choose what we do and we are in control of our behaviour.
Humans are self-determining – we are not affected by external or internal influences “Active agents”
Ultimately, this means we are in charge of how we develop and progress through life.
The humanistic approach acknowledges some constraints on free will: social rules, laws and morals. Overall, if we want to do something we have the ability to choose to do it.
An implication of the belief in free will is that this means that a person is responsible for their own behaviour, social or anti-social.
In terms of the legal system this places the responsibility with the individual, meaning it is their ‘fault’.
Explain the basic assumption that people should be viewed holistically (humanistic approach)
Humanists argue that there is no point looking at just one aspect of an individual. If only one part of them is considered then much of what could be affecting them might be missed.
Humanists do not believe in focusing on childhood during therapy – they believe the whole life should be considered.
Explain the basic assumption that the scientific method is not
appropriate to measure behaviour (humanistic approach)
Humanistic psychology does not describe itself as scientific. It argues the scientific method tries to be too objective and yet humans are subjective in the way they think and behave.
Explain self actualisation in Humanistic psychology
Everyone has an innate drive to achieve their full potential. The achievement of that full potential is called self-actualisation.
‘a growth need’ – personal growth is essential part of being human
- fulfilled, satisfied and goal- orientated
An outward, more positive attitude means that self-actualisation is more attainable. If someone experiences a negative event, and adopts a negative attitude about it, this will affect their self- concept and prevent personal growth.
Explain Maslow’s theory of motivation
• We are motivated to use free will to reach our fullest potential.
• Some needs are shared and some are individual.
• Human needs are categorised and prioritised.
Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Physiological needs-breathing,food,water,sex,sleep,homeostasis and excretion
Safety-security of body, of employment, of resources, of morality, of the family, of health, of property
Love/belonging- Friendship, family and sexual intimacy
Esteem- Self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respect by others
Self-actualisation- morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts
Key ideas:
Maslow believed that we spend our lives trying to get to the top.
Until the lower levels are met, you cannot attempt to satisfy higher level needs.
Characteristics of self-actualised people
1.A strong sense of self-awareness
2.A fully accepting view of themselves and others for who they are
3.The ability to deal with uncertainty and the unknown
4.A strong sense of creativity
What is Abraham Maslow quote of self actualisation
If you plan on being anything less than you are capable of being, you will probably be unhappy all the days of your life
Explain Carl Roger’s theory of person centered therapy (1959)
Rogers – focus on the self:
Carl Rogers’ work focuses on the self, or rather the ‘selves’, of the individual.
He suggested that we have three selves which need to integrate to achieve self-actualisation.
The self-concept: This is the self that can be described as the self you feel you are. It is similar to self-esteem and is affected by it. So, if someone has low self-esteem, their self-concept will be poor and they will have a distorted view of how capable they are.
The ideal self: This is the self you wish to be. It is who you are aiming towards becoming. Or, it is possible you are already there!
A typical way of knowing whether someone is still working towards their ideal self is when you hear someone say “I wish I was more…” or “I wish I was able to…”
This differs from the self-concept in that it is not who you think you are, it is who you wish you were
The real self: The third self is the real self, the person you actually are, not who you think you are or who you wish you were
What was Carl Roger’s attitude to self actualisation
Rogers felt that to be able to reach the state of self-actualisation, it is important for the person to be fully functioning. This means that they have the opportunity to strive for self- actualisation and are actually doing so.
Rogers believed that to achieve self-actualisation it is necessary for a person to be congruent
How can congruent be achieved (Humanistic psychology)
An important part of achieving congruence is ‘unconditional positive regard’. This means that at some point in their lives someone has to be loved for who they are by someone else. The need to be accepted unconditionally.
Explain Unconditional positive regard
Unconditional positive regard*:
Comes from :
Parents
Family
Friends
Partner
Therapist
*Essential to being able to reach full potential
Explain the role of conditions of worth
Conditions of worth are requirements that the individual feels they need to meet to be loved. This is also called conditional positive regard. Conditions of worth can be either real or perceived by the individual.
A parent who limits their love of a child to a set of boundaries- for example, ‘I will only love you if….’ causes psychological problems for that child.
Explain client centered therapy (Humanistic approach)
Client centered therapy:
• Person centred therapy is a form of psychotherapy
• ‘clients’ not ‘patients’ – expert of their own condition
• Non-directive
• Warm, supportive and non-judgemental
• Therapist provides three things: genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard.
- Increase self-worth, reduce incongruence and become a fully functioning person.
Explain Gibbard and Hanley (2008)- humanistic approach
• Studied the impact of person-centred therapy on a group of patients suffering from anxiety and depression.
• 700 people over 5 years
• Questionnaire was used to measure the extent of their condition before and after therapy
• 70% showed a significant improvement in their mental health
Explain why the humanistic approach is non reductionist
Not Reductionist:
The humanistic approach rejects attempts to break down complex human behaviors into simpler components (e.g., stimulus-response links in behaviorism or biological processes in neuroscience).
Instead, it considers humans as unique, integrated beings whose experiences cannot be fully understood by analyzing isolated parts.
Holism:
Advocates for a holistic view, suggesting that to understand a person, we must consider them as a whole, including their thoughts, emotions, experiences, and interactions with their environment.
Validity in Real-Life Context:
The approach emphasizes studying meaningful human behavior in real-world contexts rather than artificial laboratory settings.
This ensures its findings and theories (e.g., Maslow’s hierarchy of needs or Rogers’ concept of self-actualization) resonate with everyday human experiences and challenges.
Limited real world application of the humanistic approach
• Person centred therapy did revolutionise counselling techniques and hierarchy of needs does explain motivation in the work place
However, there is little impact in psychology until recently…positive psychology is a small but emerging field
• Lacks scientific evidence
• Abstract concepts
Explain why there are untestable concepts in the humanistic approach
Testing self-actualisation and congruence:
Core concepts like self-actualization and congruence are difficult to objectively test in experimental conditions due to their subjective nature.However, Rogers’ Q-sort technique offers a method to measure changes in congruence before and after therapy, it relies heavily on self-reported data, which can be biased or inconsistent.
Anti-scientific and lack of empirical evidence:
The humanistic approach emphasizes personal experiences, which are subjective and difficult to quantify scientifically. This makes it challenging to gather empirical evidence or test its claims rigorously.
Biological influence ignored:
The approach overlooks the role of genes and biological factors in shaping behavior, focusing instead on psychological and environmental aspects. This limits its comprehensiveness and ability to align with scientific frameworks.
Limited objective validation:
Tools like the Q-sort technique offer some insights, they do not provide the empirical robustness required for scientific validation, reinforcing the view that the humanistic approach lacks objective support
Explain cultural bias in relevance to the humanistic approach
Individualism:
Humanistic psychology places significant importance on concepts like self-actualization and personal autonomy, which align closely with the ideals of individualist cultures (e.g., the US and Western Europe).
In these cultures, individuals are encouraged to focus on personal achievements and self-determination, making the approach particularly relevant to their societal norms.
Collectivist cultures:
In collectivist cultures (e.g., many Asian, African, and South American societies), the focus is on group harmony, community, and interdependence.
The humanistic emphasis on personal growth may appear less relevant, as individuals in these cultures prioritize the success and well-being of their group over individual goals.
Conclusion:
The humanistic approach determines that self-actualisation (freedom and autonomy) is universally desired. However, we can see that collectivist countries to not agree with this viewpoint. This creates a cultural bias as it fails to account for differences in how cultures define and pursue growth and fulfillment.
By focusing predominantly on individualistic ideals, the humanistic approach may lack cross-cultural validity, limiting its applicability in societies with are collectivist
Explain why the humanistic approach is considered as positive
‘Bringing the Person Back into Psychology’:
Humanistic psychology emphasizes the subjective experiences, emotions, and individuality of people, contrasting with other approaches that reduce behavior to biological processes or environmental conditioning.
It re-centers psychology on understanding people as whole individuals with unique perspectives, promoting a more holistic understanding of human behavior.
Optimistic Alternative to Freud:
Unlike Freud’s psychodynamic approach, which focuses on unconscious conflicts, trauma, and a pessimistic view of human nature, the humanistic approach views people as inherently good and capable of growth.
This optimism fosters a belief that individuals are free to work towards their potential and take control of their lives, offering an empowering perspective.
Explain Tulving et al-1985 (cognitive approach)
• Using PET and fMRI scans, Tulving et al. (1994) systematically observed neurological basis in mental processing.
• Tasks involving episodic (personal memory store) and semantic (knowledge of the world store) memory may be located at different sides of the pre-frontal cortex
Left side- involved in recalling semantic memories
Right side- involved in recalling episodic memories
Explain the function of the Left Parahippocampal gyrus
• Plays a role in processing unpleasant emotions
• Links with OCD and impairment to frontal lobes (controls logical thinking)
Explain the function of the Left Parahippocampal gyrus
• Plays a role in processing unpleasant emotions
• Links with OCD and impairment to frontal lobes (controls logical thinking)
Explain Braver et al- 1997 ( cognitive psychology)
Participants were given tasks that involved the central executive whilst having their brain scanned.
• Greater activity in the left pre-frontal cortex – the activity increased as the task became harder.
• Working memory model- as demands on the CE increase, it has to work harder to fulfil its function.
Explain the support for objective and scientific methods for the cognitive approach
Employs highly controlled and rigorous methods of study in order to enable researchers to infer cognitive processes at work.
• Lab experiments- reliable, objective data produced
• Biology and cognitive psychology now work together
• Credible scientific basis
Explain the support for objective and scientific methods for the cognitive approach
Employs highly controlled and rigorous methods of study in order to enable researchers to infer cognitive processes at work.
• Lab experiments- reliable, objective data produced
• Biology and cognitive psychology now work togethe
• Credible scientific basis
Explain machine reductionism
Ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how this may affect our ability to process information.
• Human have an unreliable and unlimited memory – computers have a limit but it is reliable
• Humans have free will……??
Application to everyday life (cognitive approach)
• Only able to infer mental processes from behaviours observed
• Too abstract and theoretical in nature
• Use artificial stimuli that may not represent everyday memory experience.
- May lack external validity
Cognitive psychology has made important contributions to the study of artificial intelligence (AI) and the development of thinking machines (robots)
How does the cognitive approach treat mental health
Cognitive behavioural theory- CBT
- Patients learn how to notice negative/ faulty thought cognitions and test how accurate they are.
- Goals are set to think positively/ adapt thoughts
Explain why the cognitive approach is less deterministic than other approaches
• Determinism- all physical events occur in cause and effect relationships.
• All determined by past events and causes
• Used to predict future behaviour.
• CA- soft determinism: recognises that our cognitive system can only operate within the limits of what we know, but that we are free to think before responding to a stimulus.
• This is a reasonable ‘interactionist’ position
