Social Final Flashcards
What is anthropology?
The study of human behaviour
Try to study and understand why ppl do what they do and what it means to them.
Study of what it is meant to be human.
Look at human culture and society.
What is occupational science?
- The systemic study of the human as an occupational being
- Guides consideration of the “form, function, meaning, and sociocultural and historical contexts of occupation.
Function is the why we do it. What is it achieving?
- Emphasis on the ability of humans throughout the lifespan to actively pursue and orchestrate occupations
What do occupations mean at different times and places and how can that change?
What are some questions that guide occupational science?
- What does the occupation mean? For whom?
- What is the experience of the occupation?
- What does the occupation help one to achieve? From whose perspective?
- Desires, abilities, pressures, expectations, values, outcomes, benefits, privileges, risks…
Western and UBC definitions of occupational science
Western - provides an interdisciplinary perspective on the complexities of human occupation and its contribution to health and well-being of individuals, communities and societies.
UBC - Occupational scientists study ways of measuring participation, develop new and innovative methods of intervention to help individuals engage in activities, and examine the impact of participation on an individual’s health and well-being
Purpose of the field is about the complexities of human occupation. Some branches are on measuring occupation.
What is society?
Life organized
- Collective ways of thinking about ways of doing and what we expect based on geographic location
- Large group of ppl who live together in an organized way, making decisions about how to do thinks and sharing the work that needs to be done.
- Enduring and cooperating social group whose members have developed organized patterns of relationships through interaction with one another
Collective ways of doing things.
Through societies we organize our relationships. Ppl have shared expectations about what is going to happen. In some societies making eye contact is perceived as being rude.
Cultures do morph and change and so do expectations in society. Some of the norms in society is due to culture but it also varies and changes.
How is society created and shaped?
Humanly created organization or system of interrelationships
- Dynamic process - shape and are shaped; enable or constrain actions
- Individually shaped, but often experienced as something broader than individuals and interactions.
Like culture, is humanly created. Is about how the relationships occur and happen but not as much about what we celebrate.
Everybody’s role in society helps to maintain it or change it.
Shaped by everyone’s behavior in that collective society.
Tend to experience society more so on a one on one level, even though we can see the collective (large group)
What is culture?
Traditions, customs, values, and innovations that govern behaviour and beliefs. Multiple cultures.
- Set of traditions, symbols, expectations, behaviours, “rules”
- Nurture NOT nature - passed down from one generation to another
- Learned behaviour as distinct from instinctual
- Distinguishes one society from another
- Language, values, expectations, behaviours and norms
- Always changing
Society is how we are organized and interact but this is more about the meaning and how we do it.
We learn culture from the moment we are born - not genetically in you.
Way that we speak, words that we use can reflect our culture.
In a lot of western cultures have a high level of independence.
Many cultures in a society and people can be a part of several
E.g., religious culture, school or work, family cultures.
Doesn’t matter what your culture is you are expected to act with the norms of that society and potentially of that culture.
Can be challenges to the historical way of doing things that change dominant culture.
Culture has a normative aspect to it that does suggest the way of acting, being and doing.
What is the historical aspect of culture?
Social heritage, traditions, customs passed on to future generations.
What is the behavioural aspect of culture?
Culture is shared, learned human behaviour, a way of life
What is the normative aspect of culture?
Culture comprises ideals, values, or “rules” for living
What is the functional aspect of culture?
Culture is the way humans solve problems of adapting to the environment or living together
e.g., at holidays is the expectation everyone brings their own dish and that helps people collectively celebrate.
What is the mental aspect of culture?
Culture is a complex of ideas, or learned habits, that inhibit impulses and distinguish people from animals.
What is the structural/symbolic aspect of culture?
Culture consists of patterned and interrelated ideas, symbols, or behaviours.
What is ethnocentrism?
Belief that “our” culture is better, natural, right, the only way to live
Other cultures and societies are viewed from the point of view of one’s own values and beliefs.
- Believes our culture and values are the best, so anyone with different beliefs aren’t as good. E.g., residential schools
What is cultural relativism?
Every culture has to be seen on its own terms, can’t judge others
The perspective that perspectives, behaviours and values should be considered based on a person’s culture and not be judged using the criteria of others
Relativism - don’t judge people (if it works for them great) and what they do in terms of our culture, rather in terms of their own. Can be problematic b/c some practices will NOT align with your moral views. Implies you can’t make moral judgements.
What is organizational culture?
Shared values, beliefs, expectations and daily experiences among members of an organization.
- Emerges through interactions, shapes, experiences, defines how members act, think and behave.
- Can be “unspoken” or explicit
- Can be critical to health, wellbeing and safety
- Organizational culture can erode someone’s sense of self.
What are social determinants of health?
Forces that affect someone’s ability to reach health/well-being
We are not solely responsible for achieving our own health
Living conditions are more or as responsible for our health than medical services and lifestyle choices
The social determinants of health are the conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work and age. These circumstances are shaped by the distribution of money, power and resources at global, national and local levels. The social determinants of health are mostly responsible for health inequities - the unfair and avoidable differences in health status seen within and between countries
What are proximal determinants of health (Indigenous peoples)? Examples
The most obvious and direct
-Early childhood development, income, social status, education, working conditions
Proximal – lack of safe drinking water, family culture (e.g., sole parent family, multi-generational, housing conditions).
What are intermediate determinants of health (Indigenous peoples)? Examples
Systems that connect proximal and distal determinants
- Systems like health care, education, justice, labour markets, kinship networks, language, ceremonies
Intermediate – ceremony, language
What are distal determinants of health (Indigenous peoples)? Examples
Deeply embedded historical, political, ideological, economic, social foundations
Distal: Indian Act, Residential Schools
Colonialism, bias and stigma (emerges in many ways in some of the longstanding pieces).
What does the natural environment affect?
- Health directly
- Indirectly affect social factors that are determinants of health
Direct effect – quality of air and water
Environment we are exposed to is impacted by social factors.
What are ecological determinants of health?
Climate Change
Ecotoxicity
Resource depletion
Species Extinction
Ocean health
Many ecological determinants intersect with human-made challenges
Is environment a social determinant of health?
Idea of one health – if we make the environment a social DOH we make it about us instead of the environment
The health of the earth/planet is a key determinant in itself – not just b/c we need it.
It’s probably both. We are attuned to the environment, the natural as well as physical.
What are the determinants of health (17)?
- Income/Income distribution
- Education
- Unemployment/Job Security
- Employment and Working Conditions
- Early Childhood Development
- Food Insecurity
- Housing
- Social Exclusion
- Social Safety Net
- Health Services
- Geography
- Disability
- Indigenous Ancestry
- Gender
- Immigration
- Race
- Globalization
Income SDH
- Income associated with mental health (low income have poorer outcomes)
- Income is associated with physical health (lower income associated with diabetes)
- Consider pervasive and systemic poverty - a lack of opportunity and social capital
Education SDH
- A positive (self-rated) health effect for education was detected in a Canadian study focusing on changes in School Leaving Age (SLA) laws
- Education (less than high school) is associated with fair or poor self rated health (6.39 and 4.87 times more likely than post graduate education in women and men respectively)
Unemployment SDH
- Prevalence of poor self-rated health is consistently higher in people unemployed (10.8% - 14.6%) compared to people who are employed (~5.6-6.0%)
- Provincial unemployment rates positively associated with rates of depression
Varies what comes first….
Hard to maintain a job when you are homeless or housing insecure. Homeless shelter is not usually conducive to being able to maintain a job.
Employment & Working Conditions SDH
- Temporary foreign workers face inequities that affect their mental health, occupational hazard exposure, and challenges accessing health services
- Workers reporting psychosocial job stressors reported higher probably of burnout, stress and cognitive strain
- Health and Safety and labour laws
-Foreign workers are often here without their families, live in aggregate living.
-There is a clear link between job stressors and burnout.
-These workers work in conditions they know aren’t safe but they don’t have a lot of options.
Early Childhood Development SDH
- Family, neighborhood and community SES is linked to early child development outcomes.
- World Health Organization: early childhood development strongly linked to other determinants of health
Factors that impact ppl’s well-being in early childhood have longer term implications for their health.
How impacted early child development is by income, education, etc. have implications on opportunities given to children in early lives which impacts their capacity for health and well being later on.
Access to quality child care is another thing. Difference in provinces and rural urban – want affordable and high quality.
Food Insecurity SDH
- People with food insecurity face higher mortality rates (2.31 greater likelihood of death for severely food insecure individuals) compared to people who are feed secure
- Food insecurity is affected by geography (province or territory), household income, source of household income, education, household structure, etc
- Food insecurity is affected by geo (province vs. territory, rural vs urban, household structures, income and education)
- Foodbanks were created for a stop gap but have become staple in our communities.
Housing SDH
- Housing needs classified as inadequate, unsuitable (crowded), unaffordable, unacceptable, core housing need; ~1/3 of Canadian households live in housing need
- Homelessness contributes to poor health outcomes in numerous ways
Social Exclusion SDH
Social exclusion: the inability to participate fully in society
- High social exclusion associated with adverse mental health outcomes across EU and OECD countries
- Social exclusion – could be idea of stigma. It’s when ppl aren’t able to participate. High social exclusion (e.g., ppl who are just out of incarceration or serious mental illness, disabilities) is associated with adverse mental health outcomes.
Social Safety Network SDH
- Accessing income support
- Denial by design
- ID, paperwork as barrier
- We think about things like accessing income support – not always easy and some components of the system to apply for Ontario works (ODSP) is so fraught it feels like it is designed to deny not support.
- Need ID so if homeless or a refugee is hard to get ID you need to fill out paperwork, requires literacy ppl don’t have
Less than 25% of what their previous salary was is the benefit ppl get in Canada.
On average, benefits we give in Canada is less than 20% of what is considered minimum to live.
Access to Health Services SDH
- Most striking for vulnerable populations
- Lack of primary care / limits to chronic disease supports
- Immigrant families face systemic barriers in accessing healthcare and navigating systems
Geography SDH
- Physical Environmental factors (e.g., pollution, density, neighbourhoods, winter weather) may affect health significantly
-Rural / remote / Northern locations affect access to other factors that affect health (food, education, housing).
-Green space is associated with positive environmental outcomes (air quality, flood mitigation), and improvements in human health
Disability SDH
- People with disabilities have 2-3 times rate of unmet health care needs compared to people without disabilities
-Children with a disability are more likely to grow up in families with lower SES
Have higher unmet needs for health care than those without.
Reciprocal relationship between child with disability and SES – might cost more and ppl make sacrifices, but ppl who live in poverty are also more likely to have children with health challenges.
Public spending on incapacity – disability benefits and workplace injury benefits. Canada is low in the % of GDP we spend (less than 1%).
People live without devices they might benefit from
Indigenous Ancestry SDH
-Unique stressors
-Socio-political, historical context of colonization
-Inter-generational trauma
-Systemic racism & discrimination
-Economic disadvantage
-Substandard housing conditions, water issues
-Food insecurity in remote regions
-Limited access to healthcare services
-Consider diversity within/across communities
There are so many factors that affect the health/well-being of Indigenous peoples calling it indigenous ancestry as a DOH might be minimizing.
Data supports ppl who are first nations/Metis face inequities that affect health outcomes when compared to non-indigenous people.
The uniqueness of stressors is part of the reason it’s separate from race.
It’s not the genetics of male vs female for example that is the contributor, it’s how societies understand people and difference and how power over has implications on people’s health.
Gender SDH
Sex does NOT equal gender
-Women tend to make lower wages than men, creating inequities that affect health
-Health conditions vary based on gender (e.g., suicide rates, cardiovascular conditions etc.)
-Folks who are transgender – more discrimination, depression, difficulties accessing care.
Males have higher suicide rates
Immigration SDH
-Lack of immigration status contributes to stigmatization, criminalization, fear of deportation, healthcare avoidance / tenuous employment
-Healthy immigrant effect: health status of immigrants declines over time once people arrive in Canada
-Immigration status intersects with other determinants of health (race, country of origin, gender, education, geography, time since immigration, stress)
When ppl arrive in Canada as immigrants their self-reported health status is better than the average Canadian, but it declines over time once people arrive. Can be related to social isolation, stigma, income, employment factors. All determinants are overlapping. Immigration status intersects with other DOH. Once ppl come to Canada where do they move to? This has implications. Time since immigration is a factor on the healthy immigration effect.
Race and SDH
-Race and racism contribute to health disparities in Canada, and are experienced as structural and interpersonal discrimination
-People who are Black and Indigenous report twice the odds of being treated with less courtesy and respect than others; reporting frequent discrimination associated with 68% higher odds of having a chronic condition
-Over 50% of people of colour households in Canada live in homes which are not affordable, inadequate, and unsuitable compared to 28% of non-racialized households
Globalization SDH
-Trade, investment liberalization has benefited wealthy countries (largely at the expense of other countries)
-Asymmetrical distribution of power and resources may increase healthy inequity in some communities
-COVID demonstrated challenges with governance, implementation of globalization principles
-Considering “glocal” issues – the interplay between and global and local factors (what issues re SDH should be addressed in our own country? How can we decolonize approaches to global health?)
Globalization is often reported as the idea of a rising tide lifts all boats. There is a POV put forward that when there is increased globalization it improves economy everywhere but the truth is rich countries got richer and largely at the expense of poorer and medium class countries
Some countries poor are as rich as other countries rich.
What ppl said should happen in terms of covid – countries hoarded their resources. Globalization maybe isn’t so global.
Glocal – when we think
about DOH, we need to think about global and local issues. What issues should be addressed in our own country and how can we think about decolonizing global health. Rich countries want to come in and improve health in countries that are lower resources (patronizing and can be seen as power over rather than power sharing). Glocal encourages us to think on multiple levels.
DOH and occupation
Is occupation a determinant of health? OR
Are determinants of health factors affecting occupational participation? OR
Can occupation be both a determinant of health AND an outcome affected by SDH?
Some occupations that are not helpful (smoking, drug use) could be a DOH. Occupation relates to working conditions and social inclusion.
We know someone’s education affects occupations in which they are able to engage (more opportunities). Occupational participation also affects occupational participation.
Can think of the SDOH in terms of occupation – a lot of them affect occupation
Can be a DOH. Does engaging in meaningful occupation influence your health. Yes. Is also impacted by health. There are inequities in people’s opportunities for occupation. Is also occupational deprivation.
Is occupation a DOH? Yes. Is it impacted by social and env DOH? Yes.
What are the 8 ways to address barriers of SDOH?
- Remove funding barriers
- Adopt a One System approach
- Shift power dynamics
-Rebalance the focus - Listen to what matters
- Collect the right data
- Harness collective action
- Mobilize knowledge
One system approach – although we have social, health and education systems in the country they intersect. Even in health we have primary, emergency, acute care but if we could think of these as one system then we would be better off.
What can OTs do to respond to determinants of health?
Client as Community
Population health and Health promotion models
- Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion and DoLiveWell
Advocacy in partnership with communities / groups
Thinking about the community as your client can be a useful way to think about what you might do to address DOH in a community.
Ottawa Charter – an international document. A model that helps ppl think about the determinants of health and how it can improve health in communities. Not just talking about health services, building health public policy, community infrastructure that supports health and well-being.
DoLiveWell – framework developed by OTs. A population health, health promotion framework with an occupation lens. Idea is what you do everyday matters. Highlights importance of thinking about occupation as a DOH.
Advocacy with not for
What is psych?
New science - most advances in the last 150 years.
Study of the mind and behaviour
Philosophical roots
Memory, free will, nature vs. nurture, attraction
What are the 4 goals of psych?
Describe…
Explain…
Predict…
Change…
…Human Behaviour
Where do we see psych?
Media/advertisement
Communication
Leadership
Health behaviours
Politics
Clinically
What is behaviourism (general)?
-Watson
- Learning theory –> learning thru conditioning
-Learning is a long term change in behaviour that is based on experiences
- Stimulus (s) –> Behaviour (b)–> Response (r)
- E.g., Loud thunder –> fear –> shake/hide
- Behaviour viewed as a response to a particular stimulus
- Outcome: reinforce behaviours
Looks at behavior as it links to learning theory. Learning is a long term change. And behavior is based on continuous experiences
Connection to a stimulus in the env impacts your responses
Personality is individual but linked to environment (not focused on innate behavior)
Only concerned with observable stimulus that can be studied in observable ways
What are some underlying assumptions of behaviourism?
- All behaviour is learned from the environment
- At birth mind is blank slate
- Classical or operant conditioning - Psychology should be viewed as a science
- Theories: empirical data
- Observable and measurable variables
- Behaviour = purely objective
- Goal = predict/control behaviour - Observable behaviour is key
- Little difference between learning in humans and animals
- Behaviour results from stimulus-response
What is operant conditioning and who did it?
Skinner
Subject learns behaviour by associating it with consequences.
Voluntary behaviour changed through consequences (reinforcement or punishment)
What is classical conditioning and who did it?
Pavlov (dog study)
Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response
Subject learns to associate 2 unrelated stimuli with each other. Learning through association
Pairs natural stimulus with unconditioned stimulus to produce involuntary response.
After repeated pairings, neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus, triggering conditioned response.
E.g., a fear response - dentist
Generally is involuntary in nature.
What is methodological behaviourism?
-Watson (1913)
-Objective science of behaviour
- Predict and control behaviour
- No man vs animal behaviour difference
- Mind is blank at birth
Is more the roots of behaviorism
What is radical behaviourism?
- B.F. Skinner (1930s)
- Analyzes internal mental events in behaviour
- Organisms have innate behaviours (genes/biology)
Agreed goals between the 2 types of behaviorism - ability to observe/predict behavior but there is analysis of more internal mental states and that we do have innate behaviors (genes/bio comes into play)
Who are notable behaviourists?
Skinner, pavlov, Watson
Reinforcement vs punishment and what is it part of?
Operant conditioning
Reinforcement increases behaviour
- Positive = reward after behaviour
- Negative = removing something unwanted
Punishment discourages behaviour
Strengths of behaviourism and 2 things that came out of it?
Foundation of various evidence-based behavioural therapies:
1. Systematic desensitization - classical conditioning for anxiety (e.g., gradual exposure)
2. Aversion therapy - operant conditioning for substance misuse (e.g., alcohol + nausea-inducing meds)
Emphasizes objective, measurable experiments
Acknowledges environmental effects on behaviour (as it radicalized)
Experimental methods for causal relationships
Limitations of behaviourism
Does NOT account for individual personality traits or types
Nomothetic NOT idiographic: generalizes behaviours, lacks focus on unique individual patterns.
- Nomothetic - unable to be understood/described in terms of patterns
Idiographic - individual instances of a behaviour
Assumes behaviour is mainly learned by observation
Reductionist: simplifies complex phenomena, neglects cognitive and biological influences on behaviour
- Radical isn’t as reductionist
How has behaviourism shaped rehab?
Numerous therapy approaches e.g., behaviour modification
- Change problematic thoughts and behaviours
-Reinforce desired behaviours
Applied across environments to shape behaviour
- Education
- Relationships
- Aggression
Several mid range theories applied in rehab (e.g., social learning approach theory)
Experiments ++ to support theories and dissemination to clinical practice
What is temporal contiguity?
In classical conditioning
For associations to be made the two stimuli had to be presented close together in time.
What is psychodynamic theory (general)?
Between 1890s-1930s
Sigmund Freud
-Behaviour: driven by internal drives, especially unconscious, interactions and conflicts within one’s personality
Theories are clinically-derived
Applied to a range of human behaviours
- E.g., child development, abnormal psych, personality
Human behavior based on interaction between our drives and forces within a person. Unconscious aspects.
What are the basic assumptions of psychodynamic theory?
- All behaviour is DETERMINED and has a CAUSE
- Behaviour and feelings affected by UNCONSCIOUS MOTIVES
- Personality is made up of 3 parts: ID, EGO, and SUPER-EGO
- Adult BEHAVIOURS ROOTED IN CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES
What did Freud believe?
Freud’s psychoanalysis –> Psychodynamic theory
-Goal: illuminate repressed thoughts & feelings to strengthen the ego
- Applied to child development, abnormal psychology and unique individual patterns
Revolutionary concepts:
-Most mental activity is unconscious
- Both conscious and unconscious motivations shape us
What are the 3 parts of the mind?
Id, Ego, Superego
Saw the ID as the rudimentary type of behavior that looks at your basic needs. Things that require immediate gratification. BASIC INSTINCTS. Leads to our pleasure principle. Instincts, devil, your wants in life.
Superego - pride and guilt, if you repress it you feel pride and if you don’t then you feel guilt . MORALS & VIRTUES. Morality, angel, you doing the right thing in life.
Ego - rational part of you. Driven by REALITY. Satisfying needs by balancing external and internal drives. Reality, human, your reality in life.
What part of the mind is conscious?
Ego
What are Freudian slips?
Small imbalances in egos could lead to Freudian slips
- Repressed unconscious urges surface through a “slip of the tongue”
E.g., you say to an overbearing relative “I’m so sad you’re here” (Id - primitive response) when you intended to say “I’m so glad you’re here (ego).
What are defence mechanisms?
Freud as well
Defence mechanisms: unhealthy or unconscious behaviours meant to bring down anxiety, resulting from power struggle between the egos
Examples include
- Denial
- Reaction formation
- Projection
- Repression
- Dissociation
- Regression
- Displacement
- Acceptance
What are the 5 stages of psychosexual development?
- Oral (0-1 (maybe 1.5)) - erogenous zone = mouth
- Anal (1-3) - erogenous zone = anus
- Phallic (3-6) - erogenous zone = genitals
- Latency (6-12) - erogenous zone = none
- Genital (12+) - erogenous zone = genitals
Explain the stages of psychosexual development.
-Tension from libido (sexual) buildup
- Pleasure from its release
- Developmental stages based on tension/pleasure dichotomy
- Maladaptive behaviours: failure to progress through stages through to adulthood (e.g., smoking)
- Id - produces pleasure seeking urges in erogenous zones –> drives psychosexual stages
- Stage transitions fuelled by libido and survival instincts
Attention that you are trying to fight and overcome and this tension comes from the libido and there is a buildup of it over time.
Goal is to experience pleasure or release from this tension
Maladaptive behaviors results from failing to progress through the stages.
Who are the names in psychodynamic theory?
- Freud
- Erickson
What did Erickson do?
8 stages of psychosocial development
- Proposed 8 predetermined stages of psychosocial development
- Each stage presents a psychosocial crisis impacting personality
- Outcomes can positively or negatively shape development
What are the 8 stages of psychosocial development and ages?
- Trust vs. mistrust (0-1.5)
- Autonomy vs. shame (1.5-3)
- Initiative vs guilt (3-5)
- Industry vs. inferiority (5-12)
- Identity vs role confusion (12-18)
- Intimacy vs isolation (18-40)
- Generativity vs stagnation (40-65)
- Ego integrity vs despite (65+)
What are the strengths of psychodynamic theory?
- Influenced theories like attachment & stages of development
- Emphasized importance of childhood mental health
- Bridged nature/nurture debate: e.g., adults personality combines innate drives & experiences
Limitations of psychodynamic theory
Freud
- Theory explains doesn’t predict behaviour: “unfalsifiable”
- Prone to confirmation bias
- Oversimplifies the mind: id, ego, superego, psychosexual stages
Psychodynamic approach:
- Neglects meditational processes (like thinking)
- Under-emphasized biological/genetic factors
- Overly deterministic, limits free will
- Case studies are subjective and hard to generalize
What is attachment theory?
Part of psychodynamic theory
Attachment: Bowlby viewed attachment as “a lasting connectedness between human beings” or an “emotional bond”
- Early attachment formed in infancy
- Attachments formed through repeated act of “attachment traditions” between child and caregiver (e.g., mother)
- Different attachment styles
Attachment theory part of Developmental psych, which falls under the umbrella of the grand theory of Psychodynamic theory
Freud attributed the development of attachment to the satisfaction of the child’s instinctual drives by the mother.
What are the 3 types of attachment?
Secure, resistant & avoidant
What is humanism (general)?
1940s
What is it?
- Focuses on the whole individual’s uniqueness
- Roots: Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs & Rogers’ Person-centered therapy
- Emphasizes free will & drive for “self-actualization”
3rd force in psychology
- Response to negatives of behaviourist & psychodynamic theories
-Rejects their “deterministic” assumptions
Major people in humanism
Maslow
Rogers
What are some basic assumptions in humanism?
- People have free will, aka “personal agency”
- People are basically good –> innate need to make themselves & the world better
- People are motivated to self-actualize
- Subjective, conscious experiences of the invidiuah is most important
–> Phenomenological: personality is studied from the point of view of individual’s subjective experiences.
What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Theory of motivation
- 5-tiered hierarchy guiding motivation and happiness
-Inborn drive to self-actualize (ultimate aim). Want to be all you can be
-Actions driven by needs. Fulfill basic needs before advanced needs
What are the levels of Maslow’s hierarchy?
Bottom to top
- Physiological needs
- Safety needs
- Belongings and love needs
-Esteem needs
- Self-actualization
What is self-actualization and what can it look like?
Can be generally thought of as the full realization of ones’ creative, intellectual, and social potential through internal drive
- Self-accepting
- Enjoying solitude and privacy
- Autonomous
- Enjoys the journey, not the destination
- Responsible
- Realistic
- Open and spontaneous
What did Rogers do?
Humanistic theory of Personality development
- Expanded on Maslow’s theory
- Definition: organized beliefs about oneself
- Emphasis on self or self-concept
- Balances actual self image vs ideal self
- Childhood and others’ evaluations shape ourself
- Self-actualization requires congruence (when self image and ideal self greatly overlap)
- Rogers proposed a “person-centered therapy” theory.
- Believes that self-concept is very important to an individual
- Self-concept carries a person’s thought, feelings and beliefs
- “We want to feel, experience and behave in ways which are consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal-self. The closer our self-image and ideal-self are to each other, the more consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth”
What are strengths of humanism?
- Shift from unconscious s & observable behaviour to the WHOLE individual
- Real-world application (e.g., therapy)
- Prioritizes personal ideals & self-fulfillment
- Uses qualitative data for holistic insights
- Stresses individualistic & idiographic methods
Limitations of humanism
- Overlooks biological influences (e.g., hormones)
- Subjective –> hard to scientifically test
- Biased towards Western culture (ethnocentric)
- Humanism - can’t compare animals to humans
- “Free will” conflicts with deterministic science
What is social psych (generally)?
19th century
What is it?
- Examines how societal interactions shape thoughts, feelings, beliefs, intentions, goals
Philosophical influences
- Aristotle - humans are naturally sociable (individual-centred)
-Plata - emphasized social responsibility (socio-centred approach)
Who are the key people in social psych?
Founder = Kurt Lewin (studied group dynamics)
Allport - Social facilitation
Bandura - social learning theory
Festinger - cognitive dissonance
Tajfel - social identity theory
Milgram
Asch
Zimbardo
What are basic assumptions of social psych?
- All behaviour occurs within a social context
- People and society have a major influence on people’s behaviour, thought processes and emotions.
What is social facilitation and who coined it?
Allport (1920)
- Enhanced response when action observed in other –> presence of others: boosts/hinder behaviours
- Audience improves familiar tasks; may hinder challenging ones
- Significant concept in experimental psych
What is social learning theory and who coined it?
Bandura (1963)
- Behaviour can be modelled in social world by observing and imitating behaviour of others.
- Stages of learning
A) Attention
B) Retention
C) Reproduction
D) Motivation - Key experiment: Bobo doll
What is cognitive dissonance and who coined it?
Festinger
– Discomfort from mismatch between beliefs and behaviour in social contexts
- Reduced by changing beliefs or focusing on confirming info
- Behavioural consequences, e.g., induced compliance
In cog dissonance might comply with something you don’t believe in
What is social identity theory and who coined it?
Tajfel (1971)
- Need for positive personal and social identity
- Highlight positive traits of one’s group, differentiating from perceived “lesser” groups
What are the strengths of social psych?
- Scientific: often clear, testable predictions
- Values objective measurement
- Well-supported by experimental evidence
What are limitations of social psych?
- Overlooks individual differences
- Disregards bio factors (e.g., hormones)
- Provides only “superficial snapshots” of social processes.
What study did milligram do?
Obedience to authority with the shocks
What study did Asch do?
Line judgement - group conformity
What study did Zimbardo do?
Stanford prison experiment
What is cognitive psych (general)?
Mid 1950s
What is it?
- Studies mind as info processor
- Examines how we interpret external info
- Develops models for language, memory, attention
- Emerged from: critiques of behaviourism and improved experimental methods
Human cognition –> computer processing
What are basic assumptions of cognitive psych?
- Meditational processes occur between stimulus and response
- Emphasizes unseen mental processes, counter to strict behaviourism
- Key processes: attention, retention, reproduction, motivation (per Bandura, social learning theory) - Psych should be seen as a science
- Preference for objective, controlled scientific methods to investigate behaviour - Humans are information processors
- Like computers: humans transform, store, retrieve info from memory
What are schemas and meditational processes?
In cog psych
Schemas
- Organize & interpret info
- Develop through experience
Meditational processes
- Bridge between stimulus and response
- Mental events are scientifically study able
Have an input in the environment –> meditational process (mental event) –> output behaviour
What was Piaget’s theory?
Theory of cog development (in cog psych)
- 4 stages of development
- Kids as little scientists
- Learn by interacting with the world
- Build & accommodate new information
What are the 4 stages of Piaget’s theory the ages and their goal?
- Sensorimotor (birth to 2) - object permanence
- Pre-operational Stage (2-7) - Symbolic thought
- Concrete operational stage (7-11) - logical thought
4 .Formal operational stage (12+) - scientific reasoning
What is Vygotsky’s theory?
Zone of proximal development (part of cog psych)
- Social interaction crucial for cog development
- Concepts: cultural tools, language-thought link, ZPD
- ZPD defines learning boundaries with and without guidance
What is ZPD?
Space between what a learner can do without assistance and what a learner can do with adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers
What are the strengths of cognitive psych?
- Rigorous & controlled research
- Widely applied in various fields
- Synergies with other theories (e.g., behaviour + cog psych = social learning theory)
What are weaknesses of cog psych?
- Overemphasized on cog processes, neglecting emotions
- Simplistic computer-human brain analogy
- Human brain’s versatility and depth surpass computers.
What are the 4 subfields of anthropology and what do they look at?
- Archaeology
- Understand culture through what ppl have made - Biological anthropology (physical anthropology)
- Look at living matter to try to reconstruct things like diet - Linguistic anthropology
- How ppl use language in society. - Socio-cultural anthropology (medical anthropology is a subfield)
- Look at how ppl behave
What relationships to anthropologists look at?
Pay attention to relationships between individual & society, agency & structure
- Pay attention to ways that ppl’s actions are enabled and constrained by bigger political, economic and social conditions and processes. We all make choices as we go about our lives, but we usually make choices in circumstances that we didn’t choose for ourselves.
What is ethnography in anthropology?
- Participant observation: being & doing
- Usually supplemented by other research methods:
o Interviews, records, surveys - Deep immersion
- Relationships are key
- Reflective
- Intersubjective: produced between the researcher and the interviewee
What is the anthropological perspective?
- All human behavior has a social component
- We are biological creatures, but the ways in which we deal with biological needs/processes are always shaped by culture.
What is critical cultural relativism?
Critical cultural relativism allows you to still acknowledge things that are morally wrong
- Middle of the road approach is critical culture relativism – try to understand things from another person’s point of view but you don’t have to agree with it. You’re allowed to have a moral position of your own as long as you’re reflexive about where that is coming from – about your own beliefs that are shaping your thinking.
Things to pay attention to within culture (beyond the black box)
- Relationship between individual actions and larger political, economic, social processes
- History
- Intersections between gender, social class, race/ethnicity, language, ability/disability
- Don’t want to use culture as a black box that explains all behaviors and beliefs that are different from your own
- When we meet ppl who do things differently the first explanation is that is their culture. Is a bit of a cop out. Should think about the why. What does it say about their society, history, political and economical system?
- Anthro’s like to look at how this behavior/belief connect to everything else in society
Who is more likely to have a disability?
Women
What did Brofenbrenner do?
Ecological model of child development.
What is the ecological model of child development?
Divides the environment into levels.
Chronosystem - The largest most uninvolved system. In this system you may find things that change over time.
Macro system - Social and cultural values
Exo system - The indirect environment. Neighbours, social services, mass media, local politics, industry.
Meso system - Closer to you personally
Micro system - Immediate environment. School, peers, health services, religious institutions, family.
Also have individual - sex, age, health, etc.
Humans classify their lives into 5 categories, the closer the circle to you the more influence it has on your life
Micro and exo interact in certain ways which creates the mesosystem. Covid example - micro could be work, exo would be policies, meso would be how your work would change. Meso is those structures created b/c of micro and exo. How do policies in the exosystem impact you as an individual (micro) is the meso.
What is humanism?
- The theory covers the study of a person as a whole
- View the behavior of a human in 2 ways – through their eyes (therapist) and the person they’re observing’s eyes
- Humans are responsible for their own way of life, the way they choose to do and see things around them.
- Every human has control over one’s actions, freedom, attitude and behavior.
- Self-actualization – where humans strive to meet their full potential and become better.
What did Lorenz do?
Evolutionary theory
Looks at attachment – and the strong bond formed between a new born animal and a caregiver
What category of theory is Piaget?
Cognitive
Discusses learning but is grounded in a conceptualization of cognitive development
What did Jean Piaget believe generally?
Intelligence is not a fixed trait, intelligence is a process – not something that a child has but results from what a child does
Learning as a cognitive process occurring due to biological maturation (happens overtime) and interactions with the environment
Knowledge is acquired by acting in and operating on the world around you
- Not something a child innately has, but results from a child’s interaction with the context around them
What is the general flow of the adaptation process (Piaget)?
Current knowledge –> new situation or object –> assimilation (2 outcomes)
(1) confirmative feedback –> equilibrium maintained –> consolidate into current knowledge
(2) corrective feedback –> disequilibrium –> accommodation –> update current knowledge
What is a schema and the adaptation process?
Schema is a cognitive framework or structure that helps us organize or interpret the info we are taking in around us. Allows us to take shortcuts on how we interpret the info we are seeing. We are constantly being bombarded by info/stimuli from our environment.
Adaptation processes is how we develop schema
Current knowledge is an established scheme around a particular construct. When we experience a new stimuli, our brain needs to know what to do with this info, it won’t throw us off and we can assimilate that into a scheme we already have. If it’s new info, we don’t know where it fits, and it throws us into disequilibrium. We go through accommodation to get back to a state of equilibrium where we have a newly formed or adapted schema to be able to process that info. This happens constantly
What is assimilation?
Assimilation – children make sense of the world by applying what they already know. Use a preexisting schema as a launching point. Involves fitting reality/experience into an already existing cog structure.
What is accommodation?
When a child experiences a stimulus that they don’t already have a cog framework for so they need to accommodate that structure to develop a new schema in order to interpret it.
What are the 4 stages and ages of Piaget’s cognitive development?
- Sensorimotor (0-24 months)
- Pre-operational (2-7)
- Concrete operational (7-12 years)
- Formal operationsl (12+)
What is true about classical theorists?
Cognition/learning occurs in a series of stages
Piaget is a classic theorists – big theme in learning for classicists is that the stages of development occur in a hierarchy. One stage needs to be accomplished before child can learn on to another stage.
What is the description of the sensorimotor stage?
Stage 1
- Cognition linked to motor and sensory systems
- Understand what is perceived
Children develop increased opportunities for learning/cog development, but skills around independent movement (move and explore env) is growing.
- Object permanence – object still exists despite you not being able to see it
What is the description of the pre-operational stage
- Onset of language
- Representational thought
Developments in both expressive and receptive language. Representational thought – pretend play, using an object for a different purpose (e.g., riding a broom like a horse)
What is the description of the concrete operational stage?
- Onset of reading, mathematical concepts
- Ability to combine 2 thoughts/concepts
What is the description of formal operation?
- Abstract thought, formal reasoning, accountability
What are the substages of the sensorimotor stage (and ages)?
- Exercising reflexes (Birth to 1 month)
- Developing schemas (1-4 months)
- Discovering procedures (4-8 months)
- Intentional behaviour (8-12 months)
- Novelty and exploration (12-18 months)
- Mental representation (18-24 months)
What is the exercising reflex substage?
Birth to 1 month
- Adaptive responses linked to primitive reflexes
- E.g., grasping, latching and orienting towards visual stimulus
Not a lot of voluntary movement from birth to one month. Responses are primitive in nature and there to try to promote survival.
What is the developing schemas substage?
1-4 months
- Sensorimotor schemas develop - generalized actions that allow infants to engage with surroundings
- e.g., adjusting grasp patterns to accommodate for different shapes, sizes, weights
Developing schemas – become a little more separate from immediate care giver and can explore their env. Simple things like grasping things of different size/weight
What is the discovering procedures substage?
4-8 months
- Schemas evolve to more intentionally explore the environment and develop procedures to repeat events
-E.g., learning how to recreate the sound that comes with banging 2 toys together
4-8 months – infant exploring becomes more intentional which coincides with the mobility that they’re gaining.
Discovering- not objective or goal oriented, more so I can do this, I like to do this, so I will and repeat it. Intentional behavior has more of a problem-solving element, b/c they need to navigate a simple obstacle.
Object permanence typically in that 4-8 months (more on later side).
What is the intentional behaviour substage?
8-12 months
- Infant identifies a desirable goal and figures out how to achieve it navigating simple obstacles
-E.g., infant pushes the pillow away that is between them and the desired object
simple but being able to see that desired outcome and being able to start to develop some actions to get there. Another example is crawling over a pillow to get to a toy.
What is the novelty and exploration substage?
12-18 months
- Problem solving advances. Infant not limited to reproducing previously successful solutions. Instead, can discover completely new solutions through an active process of trial and error
Gain some complexity. Able to try new strategies and discover new solutions through trial and error
What is the mental representation substage?
18-24 months
- Create an internal plan to interact with external surroundings. Replaces trial and error
- E.g., putting items in hands into coat pocket to pick up another item requiring two hands.
Moves away from the need to do trial and error but rather internally create a plan and implement it with success.
What are the sub-events in the pre operational stage?
2-7 years
Emergence of symbolic function – using one thing as a symbol to represent something else
Examples – Verbal representation of thoughts (expressive communication) Symbolic play – riding a broom pretending it is a horse
Demonstrate the ability for delayed imitation
Egocentric – early in this stage children are not yet taking the perspective of others. This skill emerges later in preoperational stage
-Able to use symbol of expressive language to externally represent the thoughts they are having.
-Later on can take in another person’s perspective – e.g., knowing crying means someone is sad and eventually going to say sad because…
What are the sub-events of the concrete operational stage?
7-12 years
Thought becomes more organized and logical
Symbolic ability increases in complexity
Example – increased complexity of pretend play
Increased perspective taking
Advancements in problem solving
Example – Principles of conservation, combining concepts of size and volume
-Can be more complex in their play/thinking
What are the sub-events of the formal operational stage?
12+
Engage in more abstract reasoning, such as hypothetical reasoning
Able to generate and evaluate multiple hypothesis as well as deduce their outcomes
Engages in moral reasoning
- Doesn’t have to be something happening in our own reality – can think at abstract/hypothetical levels
-Can think of identity as well
What large concept do Vygotsky and Bandura explore?
Social and context
What does Vygotsky look at as a whole?
Sociocultural approach
What did Vygotsky believe in general?
Culture exerts its influence on a child’s intellectual development
Culture teaches children
What to think = their knowledge
How to think = thinking and problem-solving techniques (“tools of intellectual adaptation”)
-Focuses in on the idea that culture plays a major determinant in influencing intellectual development
-Culture can tell us what to think or share how to think (thinking/problem solving techniques).
According to Vygotsky how does culture exert its influence?
Intellectual development results from a process (“dialectical process”) whereby the child learns through shared problem-solving experiences with someone else
- Shaped by cultural context of guiding figure
Dialectical process – someone is engaging in a shared problem-solving experience with a guiding figure
- The way that culture impacts this child is through that guiding figure – whatever culture guides that figure will guide that child as well (passed on)
How does problem solving change over time?
Start - Adult assumes most of the responsibility for guiding the problem-solving
End - Responsibility shifts partly and then completely to the child
Transfer of control from adult to child reflects development as a process of ‘internalization’
- Child can internalize new skill sets and do it on its own.
What is scaffolding and where does it fit in?
In between the start and end of problem solving
Is when guiding figure adjusts level of help they provide in response to child’s level of performance
- Scaffolding – we look at a child’s performance and abilities and just level of help based on that. Might cue more if having more difficulty. If they are more skilled will cue less and ask more open-ended questions.
- Scaffolding from a practice standpoint is something that inherently happens with OT. Aligns so closely with activity analysis and breaking down activities into different steps. Doing the same thing with adults as well when in OT.
What is the role of language as a dialectical process?
Language transmits knowledge and allows for adult to model problem solving for child.
Language that was once used during external guidance becomes self-talk and inner speech.
- Social interaction between guiding figure and child, eventually child can self talk through a problem, then they internalize it and work through a problem that way.
Explain the zones of proximal development
Inner circle - can do alone - zone of actual development (ZAD)
Middle circle - can do with help - zone of proximal development (ZPD).
Outer circle - can not dod - out of reach zone
ZAD is the comfort zone – have abilities to do that task
Out of reach– even with assistance can’t be done. Is called the frustration zone
ZPD – fits between what you can and can’t do. When we find a task that is just right of a challenge for someone to develop their skills but isn’t so much of a challenge it’s frustrating them.
Want just right challenge
What zone is the dialectical process most productive in?
Zone of proximal development
What approach did Bandura largely take?
A social learning approach
Similar to Vygotsky in that is very focused on what we learn from others
Doesn’t focus as much on culture
What are key concepts of the social learning theory?
- Learning occurs through observation of social modeling, awareness of external rewards and through internal satisfaction with successful experiences
- Self-efficacy (perceived efficacy) differs across tasks, depending on mastery experiences and rewards
- Set goals, select a strategy to achieve it, try task, monitor results
- Internal satisfaction is framed as self-efficacy
We need to believe we can accomplish a task in order to be motivated to try it
If I have low self-efficacy, likely are not even going to try - Setting goals and strategies is done alongside a social model
- Example: group therapy for kids – a group that had kids from the OT service but also peers who weren’t getting service. The peers acted as models within the context of that group. Allowed the kids an opportunity to learn through social modeling.
-Thinking about that just right challenge – Bandura would think about the interaction with either a higher or lower self-efficacy. Set a task or goal in a just right challenge way so that there is the opportunity to achieve the goal and build self-efficacy
What are the 4 stages of observational learning that take you from a modelled event to a matching pattern?
- Attentional processes
-Determine how closely the child will pay attention to the model
- E.g., Interest value of model, Childs level of arousal, child’s expectations - Retention processes
- Determine how well the child will remember the model’s behaviour
- E.g., Child’s use of memory strategies - such as organization or rehearsal, child’s cognitive level. - Production processes
- Determine how well the child can reproduce the model’s behaviour
- E.g., complexity of the model’s behaviour, child’s physical skills. - Motivational processes
- Determine how motivated the child is to imitate the model
- E.g., vicarious incentives to the child, incentives to the child for imitation
What is Korb’s work classified as?
Experiential
Specifically, Experiential Learning Approach
What is experiential learning theory?
Korb
Learning takes place as we make sense of the experiences that we have
What are the 4 stages of experiential learning theory?
- Concrete Experience
- Act, do, experience - Reflective Observation
- Look back and assess what went well and not so well. State the facts of what happened - Abstract conceptualization
- Make sense of the experience, draw conclusions. - Active experimentation
- Test your conclusions, develop a plan of action
What category is the work of Pavlov and skinner?
Behavioural
What is stimulus generalization?
Part of classical conditioning
When smiliar but different stimuli elicit a conditioned response
If a child has a neg experience with one dog, this might result in a generalized fear with all dogs. Fear response generalizes.
Picky eating – maybe a child has a neg experience when eating broccoli b/c they don’t like the taste or texture, and they have a gag reflex. After this experience the child might generalize their dislike of broccoli to all green vegetables even though each food item is different.
What is stimulus discrimination?
Part of classical conditioning
Being able to distinguish between two different stimuli
Discrimination – sits opposite to generalization. E.g., teaching a child to respond to a red light (teaching them to cross the street safely), use red light as stimulus to stop and green light as stimulus to go. Over time the child discriminates between the red coloured light and other colours
What is extinction?
Part of classical conditioning
Extinction – e.g., if a child is accustomed to getting attention from parent as a form of reinforcement when they whine for a toy, the initial condition is that the child whines when they want a toy and the parents in an attempt to avoid a tantrum give them the toy. It gets paired in the child’s mind. If the parent stops reinforcing in this way, instead of giving the child the toy, the parents ignore the whining. Child will initially continue to whine but over time the whining doesn’t result in the desired outcome of getting the toy so the whining moves towards extinction.
Can also exist in operant
Explain the 4 consequences of operant conditioning
Positive reinforcement = adding something, increases behaviour
Negative reinforcement = removing/avoiding something, increases behaviour
Positive punishment = adding something, decreases behaviour
Negative punishment = removing something, decreases behaviour
What is shaping and what is it part of?
Part of operant conditioning.
- The process of teaching a complex behaviour by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behaviour
- Reward behaviour by positive or negative reinforcement
If teaching someone who has a stroke to be able to feed themselves again – first approximation might be reach for spoon, so we praise/reinforce that, then it’s grasping, then it’s moving towards mouth. Moving towards doing the entire sequence on its own
In practice usually do positive reinforcement
Punishment is usually not involved in clinical practice
What is sociology?
Understanding the world based on social facts
The study of people in groups
- The actions of individuals
- Thea actions, dynamics, and forces of the groups themselves
- The influence of social institutions that shape (and are shaped by) individual and group behaviour.
Social group vs social category
Social groups- ppl that interact together. Connect with them
Social category – have a similar characteristics but might not actually interact – e.g., women or religion (have that common unique characteristic)
What is social imagination?
Idea that if something happens, we need to think about all levels.
Explain sociology of health and illness
- Refers to how social and cultural factors influence health and people’s perceptions of health and healing, and how healing is done in different societies
- Health and illness are influenced by social, political, economic, cultural and institutional context
How you view healing is different based on your location
Language impacts our perception
What is medicalization?
When non medical problems are described as medical problems
E.g., Substance use disorder, sexuality and gender, menopause
Often as a method of social control
What is socialization and the two things it consists of?
- Social norms = unwritten rules about how to behave
- Social roles = ‘expected’ patterns of behaviour, obligation and privilege
As social practices of groups become familiar, accepted and expected, they become institutions
Institutions are comprise of organized practices and relationships, including:
- Family
- Religion
- Economics/politics
- Education
What are the 4 major social theories (sociology)?
- Functionalism
- Conflict theory
- Symbolic interactionism
- Post modernism
Explain functionalism and its 3 basic principles
- Social institutions and organizations influence societal and individual behaviours
- Social evolution occurs as formalized structures evolve and serve the purposes that smaller communities once had
3 basic principles:
1. Maintenance of social stability - society is complex but orderly; social structure consists of norms and values that regulate the individual
2. Collective functioning - interconnected structures/social patterns influence individual behaviours; society is interdependent
3. Social evolution - this behaviour is usually an adaptive response to an existing tension in the system. - Social change as and “adaptive” evolutionary response to the system
- Structural functionalism falls within this category.
- Functionalism believes we are all working towards a state of equilibrium. Social evolution comes to make things better. Emerges as a way to help society function better.
- Idea that society is complex but orderly, there are norms and values.
- All have this purpose of collective functioning – want to work towards this goal. Meaning society is interdependent
- Social evolution - adapts based on tensions that exist in society.
- Discounts the individual a bit. Not all social evolution is realistically positive or adaptive.
How is sickness looked at in a functionalist perspective?
Persons & the Sick Role
- Being ill is a product of both biology and social roles
Sick role theory:
1. Exempt from normal social roles/responsibilities
2. Expectation to seek medical help and work towards getting better
3. Requirements to cooperate with health professionals
4. Acceptance of being temporarily dependent on others.
Sickness is therefore a form of deviance as it requires a person sits outside of the core values and patterns of society.
-Labeling something as deviant is a social product
-Certain things that happen when someone experiences a sick role.
-Expected to be functional or work towards being functional/getting better. See the health professional as someone who helps you get better.
- To be sick is outside the social roles so the goal is to come back into society.
What theory did Durkheim and Parsons do?
Functionalism
What theory did Marx and Engels do?
Social conflict theory
What is social conflict theory?
- Conflict happens when resources, status, and power are unevenly distributed
- Social groups compete for social & economic resources, this in turn creates conflict
- Power and coercion are central
How conflict happens when things are unevenly distributed
Explain Marx and the Communist Manifesto & Class Conflict
- Bourgeoisie- capitalist or ruling class
- Proletariat- working class
- Example of coercion according to Marx: if working class engage in strikes/protests, rules/media will be manipulated to support the ruling class
- Laws and criminal justice systems serve interest of the ruling class and thereby perpetuate existing structural inequalities by criminalizing or marginalizing the working class
Social groups compete for resources. The Bourgeoisie might own a factory and the proletariat works in the factory. Bourgeoisie has the power at first because they have the power to extort, the proletariat have the numbers and can overthrow the group if needed.
Difference in class which leads to difference in power which leads to conflict
Coercion – working class tries to strike, then what can the factory owners do. Can try to implement laws to prevent ppl from striking. At some point the proletariat will overthrow.
Sometimes power is productive but this theory discusses the power dynamics in the classes affects someone’s access to resources.
What are 3 critical perspectives that came from Social Conflict Theory?
Feminist theory - focus on structures & forces that perpetuate gender inequality
Critical race theory - focus on structural inequality based on white privilege and associated wealth, power and prestige
Intersectionality - explores how various aspects of identity are inter-related and should be considered individually and collectively
What theory came from Mead, Weber & Goffman?
Symbolic interactionism
Explain symbolic interactionism
- Micro level: focused on social interactions
- Examines subjective meanings of objects, events, and behaviours
- People act, think, behave, and react based on what they believe, which is based on the social construction of the world (the social construction of thought).
How does individual see objects, events and behaviours.
Looks at the meaning for an individual
Meaning we ascribe is based on the feedback we receive from ppl around us.
Which theory is micro based in sociology?
Symbolic interactionism
What theory did Nietzsche, Heidegger, Foucault, Derrida, Lyotard come up with?
Post-modernism
Explain post-modernism
- Culture is how we represent reality and find meaning
- Rejecting metanarratives
- All individuals have their own perspective of reality
- No objective reality exists
Metanarratives – ideas and beliefs of how the world works. Narratives of how certain things work. There are different ones, but are ways in which we view the world. Religion has certain things that are considered good and bad.
Post modernism objects this – no objective truth, we all have different perspectives of the world
Reality is a copy of things we see/understand
Metanarratives are shared in some capacity as they’re a view. Post-modernism says everyone has their own pieces to put together to create what they believe is true. Everyone interprets their life differently which can consist of different narratives so no overarching metanarrative.
No absolute true metanarrative.
Don’t have to be post modernist in everything.
Explain Postmodernism and the impact of tech and mass media
Pre-modern culture - art, theatre, music
Modern day culture - Industrial Revolution (photography, film, consumerism)
Post-modern culture - effects of all the media; reality made up with cultural representations
A world that is made up of our unique cultural representations (therefore no two worlds/perspectives are the same)
Explain the social model of impairment & disability
Impairment = perceived abnormalities of the body and/or the mind, whether real or ascribed
Disability = the loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in the normal life of the community on an equal level with others due to physical and social barriers
Disability is broader
Who gets to decide what is “normal” or what an impairment is. How does that normalize it?
Explain the coin model of privilege
- A tool for translating foundational ideas about anti-oppression
- Systems of inequality are powerful in shaping health outcomes
- There is not one coin but rather many; each coin matters more or less according to context and history and create opportunities for advance or disadvantage
Coin is system of inequality. Top is privilege (did not earn it) and bottom is oppression
Define critical allyship
Critical allyship is the orientation for action for people who find themselves on the top of a coin that they wish to dismantle. Critical allyship is an ongoing practice or orientation, and not an identity. Practicing critical allyship means rejecting an orientation of saving, fixing or helping people on the bottom of the coin.
What are the 4 ways to embrace critical allyship?
- I see and understand my own role in upholding systems of oppression that create inequities
- I learn from the expertise of, give credit to, and work in solidarity with, people on the bottom of the coin to help me address inequities
- This includes working to help build insight and mobilize action among people in positions of privilege
- I mobilize in collective action under the leadership of and with accountability to people on the bottom of the coin to dismantle systems of inequality.
What 2 things does the sociological perspective mean?
- Seeing the general in the particular
- Seeing the strange in the familiar
