Social development & the self

Question 1

3 theories of social development

Answer 1

1. Freud’s theory of psychosexual development
2. Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
3. Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model

Question 2

How do the theories of social development differ from one another?

Answer 2

• differ in focus on how external contexts play a role in development
• differ in whether development progresses through stages or in a more continuous fashion

Question 3

Freud’s psychosexual theory

Answer 3

• influenced by his work in understanding the causes of “nervous disorder”
• believes we are born with powerful urges (e.g. sexual and aggresive desires) governed by the id (unconscious part of psyche)
• our biological drives are in conflict with reality and societal expectations

Question 4

3 components of the human psyche

Freud’s psychosexual theory

Answer 4

1. id: operates on the pleasure principle, driving us to seek immediate gratification
2. ego: operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in a realistic and socially acceptable way
3. superego: operates on morality principles, representing our conscience

Question 5

5 stages in Freud’s psychosexual theory

Answer 5

1. oral (0-18 mos), when id emerges
2. anal (18 mos-3 yrs), when ego emerges
3. phallic (3-6 yrs), when superego emerges
4. latency (6-12 yrs)
5. genital (12+ yrs), when adult-like sexual desires develop

each stage is associated with a particular region in the body

Question 6

Legacy of Freud’s psychosexual theory

Answer 6

• illustrates the role of early experience in social development
• and the importance of parent-child relationships
• led to the development of other comprehensive theories of development (e.g. Erikson’s theory)

but most of his ideas are not supported by current research and many are too vague to test

Question 7

Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Answer 7

• focused on the ego, suggesting that it does more than just balance the id and superego
• social and environmental factors interact with the ego to shape development
• each period of life has a central psychosocial crisis, a challenge we must face

Question 8

Psychosocial crisis in infancy

Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Answer 8

trust vs mistrust

Can I trust the world?

Question 9

Psychosocial crisis in toddlerhood

Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Answer 9

autonomy vs shame & doubt

similar to the anal stage in Freud’s psychosexual theory

Can I control my behaviors?

Question 10

Psychosocial crisis in early childhood

Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Answer 10

initiative vs guilt

Can I become independent of my parents?

Question 11

Psychosocial crisis in middle childhood

Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Answer 11

industry vs inferiority

Can I master the skills I need to adapt?

Question 12

Psychosocial crisis in adolescence

Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Answer 12

identity vs role confusion

Who am I?

Question 13

Psychosocial conflict in early adulthood

Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Answer 13

intimacy vs isolation

Can I give myself fully to another? (in romantic relationships)

Question 14

Psychosocial crisis in middle age

Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Answer 14

generativity vs stagnation

What can I offer future generations?

Question 15

Psychosocial crisis in old age

Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Answer 15

integrity vs despair

Have I found contentment and satisfaction?

Question 16

Legacy of Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Answer 16

• illustrates lifespan development and prompts us to think about development beyond childhood
• and the importance of identity (particularly in adolescence)

Question 17

Critiques of Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Answer 17

• underestimates cultural influences
• his ideas are often vague

different cultures/contexts may place different expectations on each stage of life

Question 18

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model

Answer 18

• uses an ecological perspective that takes into account the role of context
• sees development as occurring within a complex, interrelated system of relationships

Question 19

6 levels in Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model

Answer 19

1. child: biologically-based dispositions (e.g. temperament) that actively influence development
2. microsystem: immediate environment (e.g. family, peers, teachers)
3. mesosystem: connections between microsystem
4. exosystem: indirect environments or settings the child doesn’t come into contact with but influences their experiences (e.g. parents’ workplaces, mass media)
5. macrosystem: cultural values, laws, customs, resources
6. chronosystem: time period and age of the child

Question 20

Legacy of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model

Answer 20

• importance of considering the broad role of context beyond immediate environment
• role of policy in shaping development

Question 21

Critique of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model

Answer 21

• his ideas are vague and difficult to test
• little emphasis on individual biology

Question 22

The self

Answer 22

a cognitive and social contstruction

i.e. who you are is influenced by your mental representation of yourself and interactions with others

Question 23

3 components of the self

Answer 23

1. self-concept: thoughts and attitudes we have about ourselves
2. self-esteem: how we evaluate ourselves
3. identity: how we define ourselves in relation to our societal roles

Question 24

How is self-concept assessed in infancy?

Answer 24

rouge test
at ~18 mos, kids recognize themselves in the mirror and pass the test (rub the mark off their nose, not their reflection on the mirror)

Question 25

Self-concept at ~2 years

Answer 25

* can recognize self in pictures * label self using own name or "me" * use category labels for self (i.e. categorical self)

Question 26

Self-concept in early childhood

Answer 26

* can describe self * focus on concrete, observable features * unrealistically positive (e.g. I always win at miniature golf) ## Footnote e.g. I have a dog, a cat, and two hamsters. I can color really well. My room has dinosaurs in it.

Question 27

Self-concept in middle childhood

Answer 27

* more integrated, referring to global characteristics (i.e. more abstract than concrete) * more realistic and balanced * linked to actual competencies/evaluation * make social comparisons ## Footnote e.g. I'm good at art. I'm creative. Most of the other girls say I'm nice. I'm not very good at sports.

Question 28

Self-concept in adolescence

Answer 28

* nuanced view of the self, considering the role of situations, context, and perspective * more abstract and psychological * begin to think about the future (i.e. possible selves) * begin to develop a coherent/integrated self ## Footnote e.g. I'm pretty complicated actually. I'm sensitive, moody, and sometimes self-conscious. When I'm with my friends, I'm affectionate and fun.

Question 29

False self behavior ## Footnote self-concept in adolescence

Answer 29

intentionally presenting a false impression to others ## Footnote common in romantic relationships and with parents but least common with friends

Question 30

Personal fable ## Footnote self-concept in adolescence

Answer 30

belief that one's own experience is unique and novel

Question 31

Imaginary audience ## Footnote self-concept in adolescence

Answer 31

the belief that everyone else is focused on you

Question 32

Influences on self-concept

Answer 32

* cognitive development * parents (e.g. providing warmth and support, sharing family narratives) * peers * culture (e.g. individualistic cultures use more internal and specific descriptors while collectivist cultures use more relational and abstract descriptors) * neurodivergence (e.g. autistic individuals show less focus on self through lens of others and on possible selves)

Question 33

Influence of gender on self-esteem

Answer 33

* higher for cisgender boys vs girls * influenced by the ability to access gender-affirming care for transgender youth

Question 34

Influence of culture on self-esteem

Answer 34

increases across cultures but vary in terms of meaning (i.e. where people derive self-esteem) ## Footnote e.g. individualistic cultures derive self-esteem from individual achievements

Question 35

Influence of race on self-esteem

Answer 35

In North America: * Black youth tend to have higher levels of self-esteem * Asian American youth tend to have low levels of self-esteem ## Footnote Lattino and bi/multiracial youth are somewhere in between

Question 36

Influence of societal standards on self-esteem

Answer 36

how one feels about their physical appearance is highly correlated with their global self-esteem ## Footnote approval of others (e.g. parents, peers, teachers) also influences self-esteem!

Question 37

Trend of self-esteem throughout lifespan

Answer 37

* starts high and declines through childhood * mixed findings in early adolescence * overall, seems to increase beginning in mid-adolescence (but lots of individual differences) ## Footnote * increase in mid-adolescence may be due to increase in independence and autonomy * most research on self-esteem starts at ~8 yrs

Question 38

Proposed benefits of self-esteem

Answer 38

* high self-esteem > better academic performance and well-being * low self-esteem > emotional and behavioral problems

Question 39

Self-esteem movement

Answer 39

programs designed to boost self-esteem in order to boost academic performance and well-being ## Footnote was found to be ineffective!

Question 40

Why was the self-esteem movement not effective?

Answer 40

* likely that positive outcomes (e.g. good academic performance and well-being) lead to high self-esteem, not vice versa * only beneficial when secure (i.e. earned, based on accomplishments)

Question 41

Identity

Answer 41

* a description or definition of the self; a theory of oneself * the extent to which individuals feel secure about who they are, who they were, and who they can become ## Footnote i.e. an overarching sense of self that continues across space and time that integrates different aspects (e.g. ethnic identity, sexual identity, religious identity)

Question 42

Psychosocial moratorium

Answer 42

time in which individuals are free from excessive obligations and can experiment with different roles (e.g. university) ## Footnote Remember, Erikson believes identity vs role confusion is the central crisis during adolescence

Question 43

How can we understand identity development? ## Footnote Marcia

Answer 43

need to consider both exploration of identity and commitment to an identity

Question 44

4 kinds identity status ## Footnote Marcia

Answer 44

1. identity diffusion 2. identity foreclosure 3. moratorium 4. identity achievement ## Footnote a continuous process! common to move between statuses multiple times (e.g. "mama cycling" or moving between moratorium and identity achievement is common in late adolescence and early adulthood)

Question 45

Identity diffusion

Answer 45

* associated with higher levels of behavioral and emotional problems, relationship difficulties * more likely to report low levels of parental warmth/support

Question 46

Identity foreclosure

Answer 46

* tend to show low anxiety and general life satisfaction * associated witth higher levels of prejudice, inflexibility, need for social approval, lower sense of autonomy * more common with controlling or overly protective parents

Question 47

Moratorium

Answer 47

* can be associated with high levels of anxiety and conflict with authority * correlates may depend on the length of exploration and amount of rumination about exploration ## Footnote common in adolescence (17-19 yrs)!

Question 48

Identity achievement

Answer 48

* associated with high achievement, maturity, and intimacy * **agency:** sense of contrtol and responsibility for one's actions ## Footnote common in young adulthood!

Question 49

Ethnic-racial identity

Answer 49

a person's thoughts and feelings about their race and ethnicity, and the process of developing those thoughts and feelings ## Footnote questions of identity seem to be heightened in adolescence

Question 50

Ethnic-racial identification

Answer 50

how someone labels their race and/or ethnicity (e.g. Latinx, Vietnamese, White, Navajo) ## Footnote racial/ethnic labeling and knowledge seems to develop in childhood

Question 51

3 stages of the ethnic-racial identity process

Answer 51

1. **unexamined ethnic identity:** knowledge of race/ethnicity but no exploration of meaning; in childhood and early adolescence 2. **exploration:** sparked by experience, comments, a realization of "difference" (e.g. discrimination) 3. **resolution:** integrate race/ethnicity into sense of self ## Footnote examples of exploration are participating in cultural events, joining cultural clubs, being friends with individuals of the same racial/ethnic group

Question 52

Affirmation or private regard ## Footnote ethnic-racial identity

Answer 52

how good/bad a person feels about being part of their racial/ethnic group ## Footnote tends to be a protective factor

Question 53

Public regard ## Footnote ethic-racial identity

Answer 53

how positively a person believes other people view their racial/ethnic group ## Footnote protective benefit may depend on other aspects of ERI

Question 54

Centrality ## Footnote ethnic-racial identity

Answer 54

how important a person's racial/ethnic group is to their identity ## Footnote protective benefit may depend on other aspects of ERI (e.g. too central = more vulnerable to stereotype threat)

Question 55

Salience ## Footnote ethnic-racial identity

Answer 55

how important a person feels their racial/ethnic group is to a particular situation ## Footnote protective benefit may depend on other aspects of ERI

Question 56

Berry's model of acculturation ## Footnote and Galan's multidimensional model

Answer 56

1. **assimilation:** only identify with majority culture 2. **marginalization:** identify with neither majority nor minority culture 3. **integration:** identify with both majority and minority culture 4. **separation:** only identify with minority culture ## Footnote e.g. Indigenous youth may find it challenging to identify with their oppressors so may benefit more from separation

Question 57

Outcomes associated with positive ERI ## Footnote in adolescents and young adults

Answer 57

* lower levels of depressive symptoms * higher self-esteem * positive academic outcomes * protection in the face of discrimination

Question 58

How does positive ERI serve as a protective factor?

Answer 58

* discrimination is pervasive for ethnic/racial minority youth * positive ERI prevents maladjustment, lessening the impact on mental health, academics, social interactions, etc.

Question 59

Ethnic racial socialization

Answer 59

where children learn about the values, attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions associated with race/ethnicity ## Footnote more common in marginalized groups (e.g. parents spend more time teaching kids about their culture)

Question 60

Common themes in ethnic racial socialization

Answer 60

* understanding/valuing one's culture * dealing with racism * succeeding in mainstream society

Question 61

Limitations in studying ERI development in multiracial youth

Answer 61

* more likely to report ERI exploration but less affirmation/positive ERI and ERI centrality * parents may not have experience with all aspects of their child's ERI and have different attitudes about socialization * may experience racial/ethnic invalidation (e.g. not White or Asian enough) * may be more fluid, changing over situations and time ## Footnote but may gain the asset of learning to be reflective about their identity (e.g. flexible thinking, task-switching)

Question 62

ERI development in white youth

Answer 62

* tend to discuss ERI as less important to their identity * tend to report less positive ERI > less exploration, affirmation, centrality * White parents tend to engage in less ERI socialization ## Footnote researchers have raised questions about the impact of positive ERI in white youth and the need to consider other dimensions of ERI (e.g. white guilt, racial consciousness)

Question 63

ERI development outside North American contexts

Answer 63

* social stratification exists across societies * which domains distinguish access to power, resources, etc. can vary (e.g. race, language, migration status, religion, skin color)