Social development & the self Flashcards
3 theories of social development
- Freud’s theory of psychosexual development
- Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
- Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model
How do the theories of social development differ from one another?
- differ in focus on how external contexts play a role in development
- differ in whether development progresses through stages or in a more continuous fashion
Freud’s psychosexual theory
- influenced by his work in understanding the causes of “nervous disorder”
- believes we are born with powerful urges (e.g. sexual and aggresive desires) governed by the id (unconscious part of psyche)
- our biological drives are in conflict with reality and societal expectations
3 components of the human psyche
Freud’s psychosexual theory
- id: operates on the pleasure principle, driving us to seek immediate gratification
- ego: operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in a realistic and socially acceptable way
- superego: operates on morality principles, representing our conscience
5 stages in Freud’s psychosexual theory
- oral (0-18 mos), when id emerges
- anal (18 mos-3 yrs), when ego emerges
- phallic (3-6 yrs), when superego emerges
- latency (6-12 yrs)
- genital (12+ yrs), when adult-like sexual desires develop
each stage is associated with a particular region in the body
Legacy of Freud’s psychosexual theory
- illustrates the role of early experience in social development
- and the importance of parent-child relationships
- led to the development of other comprehensive theories of development (e.g. Erikson’s theory)
but most of his ideas are not supported by current research and many are too vague to test
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
- focused on the ego, suggesting that it does more than just balance the id and superego
- social and environmental factors interact with the ego to shape development
- each period of life has a central psychosocial crisis, a challenge we must face
Psychosocial crisis in infancy
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
trust vs mistrust
Can I trust the world?
Psychosocial crisis in toddlerhood
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
autonomy vs shame & doubt
similar to the anal stage in Freud’s psychosexual theory
Can I control my behaviors?
Psychosocial crisis in early childhood
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
initiative vs guilt
Can I become independent of my parents?
Psychosocial crisis in middle childhood
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
industry vs inferiority
Can I master the skills I need to adapt?
Psychosocial crisis in adolescence
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
identity vs role confusion
Who am I?
Psychosocial conflict in early adulthood
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
intimacy vs isolation
Can I give myself fully to another? (in romantic relationships)
Psychosocial crisis in middle age
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
generativity vs stagnation
What can I offer future generations?
Psychosocial crisis in old age
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
integrity vs despair
Have I found contentment and satisfaction?
Legacy of Erikson’s psychosocial theory
- illustrates lifespan development and prompts us to think about development beyond childhood
- and the importance of identity (particularly in adolescence)
Critiques of Erikson’s psychosocial theory
- underestimates cultural influences
- his ideas are often vague
different cultures/contexts may place different expectations on each stage of life
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model
- uses an ecological perspective that takes into account the role of context
- sees development as occurring within a complex, interrelated system of relationships
6 levels in Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model
- child: biologically-based dispositions (e.g. temperament) that actively influence development
- microsystem: immediate environment (e.g. family, peers, teachers)
- mesosystem: connections between microsystem
- exosystem: indirect environments or settings the child doesn’t come into contact with but influences their experiences (e.g. parents’ workplaces, mass media)
- macrosystem: cultural values, laws, customs, resources
- chronosystem: time period and age of the child
Legacy of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model
- importance of considering the broad role of context beyond immediate environment
- role of policy in shaping development
Critique of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model
- his ideas are vague and difficult to test
- little emphasis on individual biology
The self
a cognitive and social contstruction
i.e. who you are is influenced by your mental representation of yourself and interactions with others
3 components of the self
- self-concept: thoughts and attitudes we have about ourselves
- self-esteem: how we evaluate ourselves
- identity: how we define ourselves in relation to our societal roles
How is self-concept assessed in infancy?
rouge test
at ~18 mos, kids recognize themselves in the mirror and pass the test (rub the mark off their nose, not their reflection on the mirror)
Self-concept at ~2 years
- can recognize self in pictures
- label self using own name or “me”
- use category labels for self (i.e. categorical self)
Self-concept in early childhood
- can describe self
- focus on concrete, observable features
- unrealistically positive (e.g. I always win at miniature golf)
e.g. I have a dog, a cat, and two hamsters. I can color really well. My room has dinosaurs in it.
Self-concept in middle childhood
- more integrated, referring to global characteristics (i.e. more abstract than concrete)
- more realistic and balanced
- linked to actual competencies/evaluation
- make social comparisons
e.g. I’m good at art. I’m creative. Most of the other girls say I’m nice. I’m not very good at sports.
Self-concept in adolescence
- nuanced view of the self, considering the role of situations, context, and perspective
- more abstract and psychological
- begin to think about the future (i.e. possible selves)
- begin to develop a coherent/integrated self
e.g. I’m pretty complicated actually. I’m sensitive, moody, and sometimes self-conscious. When I’m with my friends, I’m affectionate and fun.
False self behavior
self-concept in adolescence
intentionally presenting a false impression to others
common in romantic relationships and with parents but least common with friends
Personal fable
self-concept in adolescence
belief that one’s own experience is unique and novel
Imaginary audience
self-concept in adolescence
the belief that everyone else is focused on you
Influences on self-concept
- cognitive development
- parents (e.g. providing warmth and support, sharing family narratives)
- peers
- culture (e.g. individualistic cultures use more internal and specific descriptors while collectivist cultures use more relational and abstract descriptors)
- neurodivergence (e.g. autistic individuals show less focus on self through lens of others and on possible selves)
Influence of gender on self-esteem
- higher for cisgender boys vs girls
- influenced by the ability to access gender-affirming care for transgender youth
Influence of culture on self-esteem
increases across cultures but vary in terms of meaning (i.e. where people derive self-esteem)
e.g. individualistic cultures derive self-esteem from individual achievements
Influence of race on self-esteem
In North America:
* Black youth tend to have higher levels of self-esteem
* Asian American youth tend to have low levels of self-esteem
Lattino and bi/multiracial youth are somewhere in between
Influence of societal standards on self-esteem
how one feels about their physical appearance is highly correlated with their global self-esteem
approval of others (e.g. parents, peers, teachers) also influences self-esteem!
Trend of self-esteem throughout lifespan
- starts high and declines through childhood
- mixed findings in early adolescence
- overall, seems to increase beginning in mid-adolescence (but lots of individual differences)
- increase in mid-adolescence may be due to increase in independence and autonomy
- most research on self-esteem starts at ~8 yrs
Proposed benefits of self-esteem
- high self-esteem > better academic performance and well-being
- low self-esteem > emotional and behavioral problems
Self-esteem movement
programs designed to boost self-esteem in order to boost academic performance and well-being
was found to be ineffective!
Why was the self-esteem movement not effective?
- likely that positive outcomes (e.g. good academic performance and well-being) lead to high self-esteem, not vice versa
- only beneficial when secure (i.e. earned, based on accomplishments)
Identity
- a description or definition of the self; a theory of oneself
- the extent to which individuals feel secure about who they are, who they were, and who they can become
i.e. an overarching sense of self that continues across space and time that integrates different aspects (e.g. ethnic identity, sexual identity, religious identity)
Psychosocial moratorium
time in which individuals are free from excessive obligations and can experiment with different roles (e.g. university)
Remember, Erikson believes identity vs role confusion is the central crisis during adolescence
How can we understand identity development?
Marcia
need to consider both exploration of identity and commitment to an identity
4 kinds identity status
Marcia
- identity diffusion
- identity foreclosure
- moratorium
- identity achievement
a continuous process! common to move between statuses multiple times (e.g. “mama cycling” or moving between moratorium and identity achievement is common in late adolescence and early adulthood)
Identity diffusion
- associated with higher levels of behavioral and emotional problems, relationship difficulties
- more likely to report low levels of parental warmth/support
Identity foreclosure
- tend to show low anxiety and general life satisfaction
- associated witth higher levels of prejudice, inflexibility, need for social approval, lower sense of autonomy
- more common with controlling or overly protective parents
Moratorium
- can be associated with high levels of anxiety and conflict with authority
- correlates may depend on the length of exploration and amount of rumination about exploration
common in adolescence (17-19 yrs)!
Identity achievement
- associated with high achievement, maturity, and intimacy
- agency: sense of contrtol and responsibility for one’s actions
common in young adulthood!
Ethnic-racial identity
a person’s thoughts and feelings about their race and ethnicity, and the process of developing those thoughts and feelings
questions of identity seem to be heightened in adolescence
Ethnic-racial identification
how someone labels their race and/or ethnicity (e.g. Latinx, Vietnamese, White, Navajo)
racial/ethnic labeling and knowledge seems to develop in childhood
3 stages of the ethnic-racial identity process
- unexamined ethnic identity: knowledge of race/ethnicity but no exploration of meaning; in childhood and early adolescence
- exploration: sparked by experience, comments, a realization of “difference” (e.g. discrimination)
- resolution: integrate race/ethnicity into sense of self
examples of exploration are participating in cultural events, joining cultural clubs, being friends with individuals of the same racial/ethnic group
Affirmation or private regard
ethnic-racial identity
how good/bad a person feels about being part of their racial/ethnic group
tends to be a protective factor
Public regard
ethic-racial identity
how positively a person believes other people view their racial/ethnic group
protective benefit may depend on other aspects of ERI
Centrality
ethnic-racial identity
how important a person’s racial/ethnic group is to their identity
protective benefit may depend on other aspects of ERI (e.g. too central = more vulnerable to stereotype threat)
Salience
ethnic-racial identity
how important a person feels their racial/ethnic group is to a particular situation
protective benefit may depend on other aspects of ERI
Berry’s model of acculturation
and Galan’s multidimensional model
- assimilation: only identify with majority culture
- marginalization: identify with neither majority nor minority culture
- integration: identify with both majority and minority culture
- separation: only identify with minority culture
e.g. Indigenous youth may find it challenging to identify with their oppressors so may benefit more from separation
Outcomes associated with positive ERI
in adolescents and young adults
- lower levels of depressive symptoms
- higher self-esteem
- positive academic outcomes
- protection in the face of discrimination
How does positive ERI serve as a protective factor?
- discrimination is pervasive for ethnic/racial minority youth
- positive ERI prevents maladjustment, lessening the impact on mental health, academics, social interactions, etc.
Ethnic racial socialization
where children learn about the values, attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions associated with race/ethnicity
more common in marginalized groups (e.g. parents spend more time teaching kids about their culture)
Common themes in ethnic racial socialization
- understanding/valuing one’s culture
- dealing with racism
- succeeding in mainstream society
Limitations in studying ERI development in multiracial youth
- more likely to report ERI exploration but less affirmation/positive ERI and ERI centrality
- parents may not have experience with all aspects of their child’s ERI and have different attitudes about socialization
- may experience racial/ethnic invalidation (e.g. not White or Asian enough)
- may be more fluid, changing over situations and time
but may gain the asset of learning to be reflective about their identity (e.g. flexible thinking, task-switching)
ERI development in white youth
- tend to discuss ERI as less important to their identity
- tend to report less positive ERI > less exploration, affirmation, centrality
- White parents tend to engage in less ERI socialization
researchers have raised questions about the impact of positive ERI in white youth and the need to consider other dimensions of ERI (e.g. white guilt, racial consciousness)
ERI development outside North American contexts
- social stratification exists across societies
- which domains distinguish access to power, resources, etc. can vary (e.g. race, language, migration status, religion, skin color)
