Intro & Methods

Question 1

3 goals of developmental psychology

Answer 1

1. to describe
2. to explain
3. to apply

• identify what development looks like; understand what humans at different ages typically do, think, feel, etc.
• determine what factors contribute to development
• utilize findings for programs, policies, advice

Question 2

2 main approaches for studying development

Answer 2

1. stages
2. domains (e.g. physical, social and emotional, cognitive)

prenatal, infancy, early childhood (3-6), middle childhood (6-11), adolescence (11-18/19), early/emerging adulthood, adulthood

Question 3

Nature (Rosseau) vs nurture (Locke)

Answer 3

• born as noble savages with innate ideas of good and bad
• born a blank slate or “tabula rasa”

Question 4

Current view on nature vs nurture

Answer 4

nature and nurture interplay with each other to influence development

e.g. epigenetics (changes in gene expression caused by environment)

• nature: biological endowment; genes
• nurture: physical and social environment

Question 5

Continuous vs discontinuous development

Answer 5

• gradual, quantitative change (e.g. vocabulary)
• qualitative change through stages (e.g. moral development)

e.g. discontinuous: babies think about right/wrong based on outcome and teens think about it based on intention

Question 6

3 mechanisms of change

Answer 6

1. biological processes
2. experiences
3. timing of experiences

sensitive period: time in which change/learning is optimal to occur

Question 7

Aspects of context that influence development

Answer 7

family, peers, school, community, socioeconomic status, culture, time period

e.g. Bronfrenbrenner’s ecological systems model (illustrates different levels of contexts)

Question 8

4 methods of data collection

Answer 8

1. self/other-report
2. naturalistic observation
3. structured observation
4. physiological measures

Question 9

Self/other-report

Answer 9

• surveys and questionnaires
• interviews
• focus groups
• standardized tests

Question 10

Naturalistic observation

Answer 10

observing behavior of interest in its natural setting

e.g. time-sampling, event-sampling

Question 11

Time-sampling vs event-sampling

naturalistic observation

Answer 11

• time-sampling: record all behaviors during pre-determined time periods
• event-sampling: record behavior every time event of interest occurs, but not other behaviors

Question 12

Operational definition

Answer 12

a clear and detailed description of how you intend to measure a variable

e.g. helping behaviors

Question 13

Structured observation

Answer 13

researcher sets up a situation to evoke a behavior of interest

allows us to examine behavior in a more controlled setting (i.e. similar across participants)

Question 14

Physiological measures

Answer 14

heart rate, blood pressure, hormone levels, pupil dilation, neuroimaging

Question 15

4 kinds of neuroimaging

and what they measure

Answer 15

1. EEG/ERP: electrical activity in the brain
2. MRI: brain structure using magnetic fields
3. fMRI: blood flow in the brain using magnetic fields
4. NIRS: measures blood flow in the brain using light

NIRS (near-infrared spectroscopy) is more effective with smaller heads and heads with less hair

Question 16

Advantages of naturalistic observation

Answer 16

• can be affordable
• reflects real-world behavior

children may be less influenced by observer

Question 17

Disadvantages of naturalistic observation

Answer 17

• may be hard to observe rare behaviors
• observer bias, effects
• difficult to control
• little insight into why behavior occurs, or inner experience

Question 18

Advantages of structured observation

Answer 18

• same situation for everyone = more control/equivalence
• useful for rare behaviors/situations

Question 19

Disadvantages of structured observation

Answer 19

• may not reflect natural behaviors
• observer bias
• little insight into why behavior occurs, or inner experience

• children may be unwilling to engage in tasks
• ethical concerns about some situations

Question 20

Advantages of self/other-report

Answer 20

• easy to administer
• can probe inner experience (motivations, emotions, etc.)

Question 21

Disadvantages of self/other-report

Answer 21

• can’t guarantee accuracy
• may be biased (by interviewer or subject)

• children may be unable to fill out questionnaires
• may be shy
• may have memory difficulties or be easily influenced

Question 22

Advantages of physiological measures

Answer 22

• assess biological underpinnings
• does not require language/behavior

Question 23

Disadvantages of physiological measures

Answer 23

• can be costly
• can be difficult to interpret results

• can be loud/frightening for children

Question 24

2 kinds of research designs

overall structure of research

Answer 24

1. correlational
2. experimental

Question 25

Correlational design

Answer 25

examines the relationship between 2 variables ## Footnote * measures both variables (none are assigned/manipulated) * do people who differ on variable 1 also systematically differ on variable 2?

Question 26

Correlation coefficient

Answer 26

measures the association between 2 variables in terms of: 1. direction (positive or negative) 2. strength (0 to +/-1) ## Footnote ≠ causation!

Question 27

Experimental design

Answer 27

* researcher manipulates independent variable and participants are randomly assigned to different groups * examines cause-effect ## Footnote may be ethically difficult to manipulate/randomly assign

Question 28

2 kinds of research designs for studying age/development

Answer 28

1. cross-sectional 2. longitudinal

Question 29

Cross-sectional vs longitudinal design

Answer 29

* different groups of participants at different ages measured at the same time * same participants measured repeatedly across time at different ages

Question 30

Disadvantages of cross-sectional design

Answer 30

* impossible to tell if differences between groups are due to age or cohorts * can't track individuals development

Question 31

Disadvantages of longitudinal design

Answer 31

* time, cost, drop-outs, generalizability * impossible to tell if changes observed between measurements are changes with age or changes in history

Question 32

Challenges with studying age/development

Answer 32

* understanding what causes change * measurement equivalence (e.g. aggression in kids vs teens) * challenges of the population (e.g. selection, ethics, cooperation)

Question 33

Strengths of the scientific method ## Footnote science as a way of knowing

Answer 33

* scientific community comments on, critiques, builds upon each others' work * constantly changing and updating = improving knowledge * publicly shared knowledge

Question 34

Replication ## Footnote and replication crisis or growing pains

Answer 34

process of repeating a study to determine which results generalize across time/situations/contexts ## Footnote **2010s replication crisis:** researchers began to note that many Psychology findings failed to replicate

Question 35

Limitations of the scientific method

Answer 35

* cannot answer all questions * assumption that science is the only or best way of knowing * embedded within particular historical and cultural contexts * biases of scientists can exclude, distort ideas, lead to othering ## Footnote e.g. indigenous families, kids with disabilities (e.g. autism), neurodivergent kids often left out of research

Question 36

Positionality

Answer 36

our positions in society, and in relation to our work, that impact how we perceive the world ## Footnote e.g. our contexts, identities, access

Question 37

Importance of positionality

Answer 37

helps us acknowledge how who and where we are influences our relationship with out learning and content material

Question 38

How is development intertwined with positionality?

Answer 38

* development shapes us into who we are * our positionality shapes how we see development, developmental psychology, and research

Question 39

Controversies surrounding positionality

Answer 39

* wanting science to be unbiased or wanting separation between researcher/research * unsure of impact * feelings of forced disclosure ## Footnote positionality allows us to acknowledge our biases, not get rid of them!