Intro & Methods Flashcards
3 goals of developmental psychology
- to describe
- to explain
- to apply
- identify what development looks like; understand what humans at different ages typically do, think, feel, etc.
- determine what factors contribute to development
- utilize findings for programs, policies, advice
2 main approaches for studying development
- stages
- domains (e.g. physical, social and emotional, cognitive)
prenatal, infancy, early childhood (3-6), middle childhood (6-11), adolescence (11-18/19), early/emerging adulthood, adulthood
Nature (Rosseau) vs nurture (Locke)
- born as noble savages with innate ideas of good and bad
- born a blank slate or “tabula rasa”
Current view on nature vs nurture
nature and nurture interplay with each other to influence development
e.g. epigenetics (changes in gene expression caused by environment)
- nature: biological endowment; genes
- nurture: physical and social environment
Continuous vs discontinuous development
- gradual, quantitative change (e.g. vocabulary)
- qualitative change through stages (e.g. moral development)
e.g. discontinuous: babies think about right/wrong based on outcome and teens think about it based on intention
3 mechanisms of change
- biological processes
- experiences
- timing of experiences
sensitive period: time in which change/learning is optimal to occur
Aspects of context that influence development
family, peers, school, community, socioeconomic status, culture, time period
e.g. Bronfrenbrenner’s ecological systems model (illustrates different levels of contexts)
4 methods of data collection
- self/other-report
- naturalistic observation
- structured observation
- physiological measures
Self/other-report
- surveys and questionnaires
- interviews
- focus groups
- standardized tests
Naturalistic observation
observing behavior of interest in its natural setting
e.g. time-sampling, event-sampling
Time-sampling vs event-sampling
naturalistic observation
- time-sampling: record all behaviors during pre-determined time periods
- event-sampling: record behavior every time event of interest occurs, but not other behaviors
Operational definition
a clear and detailed description of how you intend to measure a variable
e.g. helping behaviors
Structured observation
researcher sets up a situation to evoke a behavior of interest
allows us to examine behavior in a more controlled setting (i.e. similar across participants)
Physiological measures
heart rate, blood pressure, hormone levels, pupil dilation, neuroimaging
4 kinds of neuroimaging
and what they measure
- EEG/ERP: electrical activity in the brain
- MRI: brain structure using magnetic fields
- fMRI: blood flow in the brain using magnetic fields
- NIRS: measures blood flow in the brain using light
NIRS (near-infrared spectroscopy) is more effective with smaller heads and heads with less hair
Advantages of naturalistic observation
- can be affordable
- reflects real-world behavior
children may be less influenced by observer
Disadvantages of naturalistic observation
- may be hard to observe rare behaviors
- observer bias, effects
- difficult to control
- little insight into why behavior occurs, or inner experience
Advantages of structured observation
- same situation for everyone = more control/equivalence
- useful for rare behaviors/situations
Disadvantages of structured observation
- may not reflect natural behaviors
- observer bias
- little insight into why behavior occurs, or inner experience
- children may be unwilling to engage in tasks
- ethical concerns about some situations
Advantages of self/other-report
- easy to administer
- can probe inner experience (motivations, emotions, etc.)
Disadvantages of self/other-report
- can’t guarantee accuracy
- may be biased (by interviewer or subject)
- children may be unable to fill out questionnaires
- may be shy
- may have memory difficulties or be easily influenced
Advantages of physiological measures
- assess biological underpinnings
- does not require language/behavior
Disadvantages of physiological measures
- can be costly
- can be difficult to interpret results
- can be loud/frightening for children
2 kinds of research designs
overall structure of research
- correlational
- experimental
Correlational design
examines the relationship between 2 variables
- measures both variables (none are assigned/manipulated)
- do people who differ on variable 1 also systematically differ on variable 2?
Correlation coefficient
measures the association between 2 variables in terms of:
1. direction (positive or negative)
2. strength (0 to +/-1)
≠ causation!
Experimental design
- researcher manipulates independent variable and participants are randomly assigned to different groups
- examines cause-effect
may be ethically difficult to manipulate/randomly assign
2 kinds of research designs for studying age/development
- cross-sectional
- longitudinal
Cross-sectional vs longitudinal design
- different groups of participants at different ages measured at the same time
- same participants measured repeatedly across time at different ages
Disadvantages of cross-sectional design
- impossible to tell if differences between groups are due to age or cohorts
- can’t track individuals development
Disadvantages of longitudinal design
- time, cost, drop-outs, generalizability
- impossible to tell if changes observed between measurements are changes with age or changes in history
Challenges with studying age/development
- understanding what causes change
- measurement equivalence (e.g. aggression in kids vs teens)
- challenges of the population (e.g. selection, ethics, cooperation)
Strengths of the scientific method
science as a way of knowing
- scientific community comments on, critiques, builds upon each others’ work
- constantly changing and updating = improving knowledge
- publicly shared knowledge
Replication
and replication crisis or growing pains
process of repeating a study to determine which results generalize across time/situations/contexts
2010s replication crisis: researchers began to note that many Psychology findings failed to replicate
Limitations of the scientific method
- cannot answer all questions
- assumption that science is the only or best way of knowing
- embedded within particular historical and cultural contexts
- biases of scientists can exclude, distort ideas, lead to othering
e.g. indigenous families, kids with disabilities (e.g. autism), neurodivergent kids often left out of research
Positionality
our positions in society, and in relation to our work, that impact how we perceive the world
e.g. our contexts, identities, access
Importance of positionality
helps us acknowledge how who and where we are influences our relationship with out learning and content material
How is development intertwined with positionality?
- development shapes us into who we are
- our positionality shapes how we see development, developmental psychology, and research
Controversies surrounding positionality
- wanting science to be unbiased or wanting separation between researcher/research
- unsure of impact
- feelings of forced disclosure
positionality allows us to acknowledge our biases, not get rid of them!
