Social Cognition

Question 1

orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)

Answer 1

important for processing reward but also
important in social cognition (see case of Phineas Gage).
important for applying appropriate rules in social setting.

Question 2

OFC damage

Answer 2

trauma, tumors, stroke, surgery, or neurodegenerative disorders such as parkinson’s, huntington’s, and alzheimer’s diseases

-> blunted affect, impaired autonomic response to emotional pictures and emotional memories, diminished regret, less inhibited, tolerate frustration poorly and anger easily, show increased aggression, immaturity, and impaired goal-directed behavior -> deficits in emotional processing
Patients with orbitofrontal damage tend to have unrealistically positive self-views along with inappropriate social behavior.

OFC patients did not perform well on the test and
exhibit decreased ability to apply their social knowledge to certain scenarios.
OFC patients use unflattering nicknames for the experimenter compared to controls.
* OFC patients were not embarrassed.

Question 3

ventromedial prefrontal cortex

Answer 3

is important for self-
referential processing.

Question 4

prefrontal cortex

Answer 4

necessary for cognitive control, impulse control, and decision making
-develops much later and as a result social cognition also develops throughout childhood and adolescence.
mPFC important for reasoning about mental states of other

Question 5

regions that have been implicated in self-referential processing
Don’t Venture Past My Locus

Answer 5

dlPFC, vmPFC, posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), and medial and lateral parietal cortex

Question 6

neurodevelopment disorders associated with deficits in social behaviour
All Socially Awkward

Answer 6

antisocial personality disorder APD, schizophrenia, and autism spectrum disorder ASD

Question 7

mindblindness

Answer 7

Mindblindness highlights the challenges some people face in developing Theory of Mind, which is the ability to recognize that others have thoughts and feelings that are different from one’s own.

Question 8

social cognitive neuroscience
My Party Friends Are Making Moves

Answer 8

Definition: A field of study that explores how the brain processes social information, such as understanding others’ emotions, thoughts, and intentions, and how these processes influence behavior.
Focus: Investigates the neural mechanisms underlying social interactions, empathy, theory of mind, moral decision-making, and other social cognitive functions.
Key Brain Regions:
Medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC): Involved in thinking about others’ thoughts and intentions (Theory of Mind).
Amygdala: Plays a key role in processing emotions and emotional responses.
Temporoparietal Junction (TPJ): Important for understanding other people’s perspectives and empathy.
Mirror Neuron System: Helps in understanding actions by seeing others perform them, supporting imitation and empathy.

Question 9

self-referential processing

Answer 9

• MPFC activity increases with self-referential processing
• Greater activity of the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) is associated with
  self-referential processing when compared to processing words in relation to
  another person (“other”) or in relation to the printed format of the words.

Question 10

self-reference effect

Answer 10

Knowing yourself involves the physical you (“Is this my arm?”) as well as
unobservable essence of you (your traits, memories, experiences, etc.)
* Self-referential processing: people remember information much better when
it relates to themselves compared to others.
* Self-referential effect may be due to the self having a unique mnemonic
organization and also more knowledge about oneself.

Question 11

hypoxia

Answer 11

Definition: A condition where there is a deficiency of oxygen in the tissues of the body, despite adequate blood flow.
Cause: Can occur due to various factors, such as high altitudes, respiratory diseases, or inadequate oxygen supply.
Symptoms: Shortness of breath, fatigue, confusion, dizziness, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness.

Question 12

default mode network
Peter Is Taking Red Peppers, Picking Very Delicious Lemons

Answer 12

Combined data from nine positron emission tomography (PET) studies
showing the regions that were most active during passive tasks (in blue),
which is referred to as the default mode network (DMN)
- prefrontal cortex
- inferior parietal lobule
- temporal-parietal junction
- lateral temporal cortex
- retrosplenial cortex
- PCC
- precuneus
- dmPFC (increases during
tasks that involve self-referential
mental activity or self-focused
attention and decreases during tasks
that involve externally focused
attention.)
- vmPFC

Question 13

sentinel hypothesis

Answer 13

Definition: A theory suggesting that individuals or organisms may develop heightened vigilance or alertness to potential threats or dangers in their environment to protect themselves and others.
Example: In a social context, one person in a group may take on the role of being hyper-aware of the environment, watching for potential dangers or signs of trouble.
Application: This idea is often applied to explain certain behaviors in animals, such as one member of a group staying alert while others feed, or in human groups where one person may take on a leadership or protective role.
Purpose: The sentinel’s role is to ensure the safety of the group by detecting and responding to risks early.

Question 14

embodiment

Answer 14

feeling of spatial
unity between the “self” and the
body.

Question 15

out-of-body experience

Answer 15

During an OBE, a person seems
to be awake yet sees his body
and the world from a location
outside his physical body.

Question 16

autoscopic phenomena (two disintegrations)

Answer 16

OBE is one of three visual body illusions
- OBE: damage to right temporopareital cortex
- autoscopic hallucination: damage to right parieto-occipital or right temporo-occipital cortex
- heautoscopy: damage to left temporoparietal cortex

Question 17

xenomelia

Answer 17

a rare condition in which able-bodied
individuals report experiencing a lifelong
desire for amputation of one or several
limbs because they feel their limb(s) do
not belong to their body.

Question 18

body integrity identity disorder (BIID)

Answer 18

Definition: A rare condition where individuals feel that one or more of their limbs (or part of their body) does not belong to them, or that they should not be part of their body.
Symptoms: A strong desire to amputate or disable a healthy limb or body part because it feels “alien” or not part of their identity.
Cause: The exact cause is unclear, but it may involve a mismatch between the brain’s body map and the actual physical body.
Treatment: Often involves psychological therapy, though some people may seek surgical interventions (which are controversial and not widely supported by medical professionals).

Question 19

emphatic accuracy

Answer 19

Definition: The ability to accurately perceive and understand the emotions, thoughts, and feelings of others.
Example: Being able to tell that a friend is feeling anxious even if they haven’t explicitly said so, based on their body language and tone of voice.
Importance: It helps in building strong relationships, effective communication, and social understanding.
Measurement: Often assessed by comparing a person’s perception of another’s emotions with the other person’s actual reported feelings.
Related to: Empathy, emotional intelligence, and social cognition.

Question 20

mental state attribution theory (theory theory)

Answer 20

Definition: The theory that people can infer and attribute mental states (like beliefs, intentions, desires, and emotions) to themselves and others to understand and predict behavior.
Example: If someone looks sad, you might attribute their mental state to feeling upset about something, even if you don’t know exactly why.
Key Idea: This theory suggests that we constantly interpret and make assumptions about others’ mental states to understand their actions and react appropriately.
Related to: Theory of Mind (ToM), which involves understanding that others have thoughts and feelings that are separate from our own.
Development: This ability develops in early childhood and is crucial for social interactions and empathy.

Question 21

theory of mind

Answer 21

the ability to assign mental states to oneself and to other people.
* Lots of work done in children to study
development of ToM.
* Salle-Anne task has been developed to
asses ToM. 4 years old pass this test.
* Yet, later experiments with different ToM
task revealed that younger children also
already have ToM abilities.

Question 22

imitative behaviour

Answer 22

Definition: The act of copying or mimicking the actions, gestures, or behaviors of others.
Example: A child watches an adult clap their hands and then claps their hands in the same way.
Purpose: Important for learning, social bonding, and development of skills.
Key in: Early childhood development, teaching new behaviors, and empathy.
Brain Involvement: The mirror neuron system plays a major role in facilitating imitation by allowing the brain to “mirror” the actions of others.

Question 23

false belief task

Answer 23

Definition: A test used to measure Theory of Mind (ToM), specifically understanding that others can have beliefs that are different from reality and from one’s own beliefs.
Example: In the classic Sally-Anne task, Sally places a ball in a basket and leaves. Anne moves the ball to a box while Sally is gone. The child is then asked, “Where will Sally look for the ball?”
A child with developed Theory of Mind will answer, “In the basket,” because they understand that Sally has a false belief about the ball’s location.
Purpose: Assesses a child’s ability to recognize that others can hold beliefs that are not based on reality or their own perspective.
Development: Typically passed around age 4 or 5 in typical development.

Question 24

joint attention

Answer 24

Definition: The shared focus of two individuals on an object or event, where both are aware of each other’s attention and intentionally engage with the same thing.
Example: A parent and child both look at a picture book, and the parent points at an image while the child looks at the parent and the picture.
Purpose: Important for language development, social learning, and communication.
Key in: Early childhood development, especially for building social bonds and understanding others’ perspectives.

Question 25

experience sharing theory

Answer 25

states that we observe
someone else’s behavior, simulate it,
and use our own mental state produced
by that simulation to predict the mental
state of others
Experience sharing theory proposes that people make inferences about the actions of others by using their own expectations based on experiences from their own lives. The woman on the right imagines
herself in her friend’s situation and infers her friend’s mental state from how she would feel in the same situation.
* mPFC is important for perception of self and others an it is hypothesized
that the overlap of self/other in mPFC may explain how we infer mental states of others.
mPFC self/other overlap may be dependent on how similar we perceive ourselves to the other person: the more similar the more overlap in mPFC activity.
* However, other researchers suggest it is the level of relatedness (familiarity, closeness, emotional importance etc.) between people that determines mPFC self/other overlap: similar mPFC is active for romantic partners even though they perceived themselves as being different.

Question 26

embodiment simulation

Answer 26

Definition: The process of mentally recreating or imagining bodily states, sensations, or actions to understand or predict experiences—your own or someone else’s.
Example: Feeling a phantom itch when you see someone else scratch their arm.
Purpose: Plays a role in empathy, social cognition, and understanding others’ emotions or actions.
Key Brain Regions: Mirror neuron system, somatosensory cortex, and insula.

Question 27

AI-mACC

Answer 27

Definition: Anterior Insula-midcingulate Cortex Circuit (AI-mACC), a brain network involved in integrating emotions, cognition, and bodily states.
Functions:
Emotion Processing: Recognizing and responding to emotional stimuli.
Conflict Monitoring: Detecting errors or competing demands.
Cognitive Control: Supporting decision-making and behavior regulation.
Example: Engaging this circuit when feeling stressed but needing to focus on a task.

Question 28

embodied awareness

Answer 28

Definition: Being aware of your body’s sensations, movements, and presence in the moment.
Example: Noticing your breathing, posture, or the feeling of your feet on the ground.
Purpose: Enhances mind-body connection, often used in mindfulness and therapy practices.

Question 29

stereotyped utterances

Answer 29

Definition: Repeated, fixed phrases or words used habitually without clear meaning or context.
Example: Repeatedly saying “It’s time to go!” in unrelated situations.
Associated with: Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), brain injury, or other neurodevelopmental conditions.

Question 30

delayed echolalia

Answer 30

Definition: Repeating phrases or sentences heard earlier (minutes, hours, or even days later).
Example: A child repeats a line from a TV show at a random time.
Associated with: Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).
Purpose: Can serve as communication, self-regulation, or a way to process language.

Question 31

reversal learning

Answer 31

A type of cognitive flexibility task where individuals must learn to adapt when previously rewarded behaviors are no longer rewarded, and new behaviors are reinforced instead.
Purpose: Measures adaptability and the ability to update behavior based on changing rules or feedback.

Question 32

vACC

Answer 32

Less deactivation in the
anterior cingulate was
associated with rating positive
personality traits in comparison
to negative personality traits.
vACC = ventral anterior
cingulate cortex.
* These results suggest that the
vACC is important for
distinguishing positive self-
relevant information from
negative self-relevant
information.

Question 33

empathy

Answer 33

capacity to understand
and respond to the unique affective
experiences of another person and
MNs may play a mechanistic role

Question 34

self-other distinctions

Answer 34

Anterior insula was active when
appraising and processing information
about the self and close others but not
about public figures.
* Ventral and dorsal ACC showed activity
for self-specific processing and was not
active during appraisal of close others
and public figures.
* Thus ventral and dorsal ACC is active for
self related stimuli and self-reflection and
action monitoring.

Question 35

autism

Answer 35

ASD have hyperconnectivity (increased connectivity) with frontal cortex as well as decreased long-range connectivity and decreased reciprocal interactions with other cortical regions.
* ASD compared to controls have different white matter connectivity in various parts in the brain (including frontal cortex). No single brain region is associated with ASD

Question 36

autism and DMN

Answer 36

ASD have abnormal activity in Default mode network
In participants with ASD, there is no change in MPFC activity when they are switching from a resting state or doing an active task (number task).
* Evidence suggests that MPFC is not active as much in ASD compared to controls.
Researchers found reduced vmPFC and vACC activity in ASD compared to controls
in all judgment tasks as well as resting state condition, suggesting activation reductions are independent of task.
* However, activity in dmPFC and PCC was decreased in ASD vs controls for the internal task, but slightly increased during external task
Thus, these findings suggest that social deficits in ASD are due partially to the fact that their brains are not being constantly prepared for the type of social though that marks social cognition.

Question 37

autism and MNN

Answer 37

Researchers have wondered whether there is a link between MNN and ASD.
* Cattaneo designed an experiment to understand motor intentions in ASD and
control children.
* The task involved reaching, grasping and bringing the object to mouth or container.
* Task was done by themselves and also observing an experimenter doing it.
* Measured the mylohyoid (MH) muscle involved in the mouth opening.In typical development (TD) children MH was activated early in reaching and
grasping phases of both carrying out a grasping-for-eating task (figure a) and observing a grasping-for-eating task (figure c).
* In ASD children, the MH was only activated in bringing-to-the-mouth action (figure b) and no MH activity occurred during observation of the task (figure d).
* This suggests that individual motor acts are not integrated into an action chain in ASD children, so they lack a full comprehension of the intention of others.

Question 38

trolley dilemma

Answer 38

train 5 ppl or 1 person
Impersonal decisions activated lateral PFC and bilateral parietal lobe (both involved in working memory)
* Personal decisions activated medial PFC, PCC and amygdala.