Social and Multicultural Psychology Flashcards
dispositional attributions
- also known as internal attributions
- the cause of a behaviour is within the person
Example: failing is test is due to lack of effort in preparation
situational attribution
- also known as external attributions
- the cause of a behaviour is outside the person
Example: failing a test is due to test unfairness
consistency
distinctiveness
consensus
consistency = whether a person behaves the same way over time (if they dont… low consistency)
distinctiveness = whether a person’s behaviour is unique to the situation or stimulus (if it is not… low consistency)
consensus = whether people in the same situation tend to respond similarly (if most do not… low consensus)
fundamental attribution bias (fundamentalmente una victima/el problema eres tú)
THE BEHAVIOUR OF OTHERS is due to dispositional (internal) causes.
Tendency to overestimate dispositional (internal factors) and underestimate external (situational) factors. example: blaming the victim
Impacted by culture= teens/adults in NA= made more dispositional/internal attributions about others. Teens/adults in Asia= made more situational external attributions.
actor observer bias
ONE’S OWN BEHAVIOUR is due to situational (external) factors and the BEHAVIOUR OF OTHERS is due to dispositional (internal) factors
self serving bias
when we describe OUR OWN BEHAVIOURS, attribute our successes to dispositional (internal) factors and our failures to situational (external) factors
heuristics
availability vs. representative vs. simulation (and why is simulation different than the other 2?)
availability = people estimate the likelihood of a situation based on how easily they can recall it
representative = people make judgments about people or events based on what they believe is a typical example of a particular category (example - assuming a DV victim is a woman)
simulation = people develop mental images of situations and then use these mental images to make judgments about facts in their lives. Study= man who misses flight 30mins vs 5mins. Different than all other heuristics bc it also affects how others will feel.
cognitive dissonance (4 Methods and which is more effective)
people change their attitudes to reduce the aversive arousal they experience when they become aware of inconsistent in their cognitions
(in other words - people change their attitudes to match their actions)
4 methods: replace/substract the dissonant cognition, add a consonant cognition, increase importance of a consonant cognition and decrease the importance of the dissonant cognition
The most effective is: decreasing the importance of the dissonant cognition.**
self-perception theory
people infer their attitudes as well as their emotions by observing their own behaviour
example: I just gave a speech about ___________, I must really like it
Tie to overjustification effect = when people are externally reinforced for engaging in an intrinsically rewarding behaviour they’ll think they’re performing due to external rewards which will cause intrinsic motivation to decline
overjustification hypothesis
people lose interest in previously desirable activities after performing them for too much justification (I.e. kids markers study)
Tied to self-perception theory
primacy effect
when there is a long gap between a speech and the desired action, the idea presented first will be remembered best. Why? Bc short term memory material (recency effect) was left unattended and it wasn’t transferred to long term. So only long term info remains.
recency effect
when there is a short gap between a speech and the desired action, the idea presented last will be remembered best
persuasion & characteristics of the source/message/audience
source
- if the message is unimportant, the likeability/similarity to self/physical attractiveness is important
- if the message is important, the credibility (trustworthiness and expertise) is important (I.e. think pastors)
- inverted U for message discrepancies = moderate differences are best.
- if you’re super trustworthy then it’s a linear relationship with message discrepancy
message
- Scare tactics work best when there’s a real reason to be scared, and you also show how to fix the problem. (Mixed research on how much fear is needed to be effective)
- presentation of the info: If your message comes first, it usually has a bigger impact (Primacy Effect). If it comes later, it matters more when opinions are checked soon after not long after (Recency Effect).
audience
- moderate self-esteem, higher vulnerability, high involvement in idea/product are most easily persuaded. U shape. For age (YA & OA) and also lower IQ
elaboration likelihood of persuasion
two ways people can be persuaded…
peripheral route = focuses on aspects that are not central to the message (example - attractiveness of the speaker)
central route = elaborating on the messages arguments
- central route usually results in enduring / resistant to change attitudes that are predictive of behavior
superordinate goals
goals that can only be achieved with both groups working together and are of benefit to both parties
*reduces prejudice and discrimination. And inter group conflict.
Robbers cave & Jigsaw
approach-approach conflict
approach-avoidance conflict
avoidance-avoidance conflict
approach-approach conflict = a person must choose between two favorable options. Not a dilemma since once the individual begins to approach one positive goal, the strength of the pull of the other positive goal decreases
approach-avoidance conflict = both options have pros/cons. Which makes it hard to choose to do or not do something. (Netflix or Hulu)
avoidance-avoidance conflict = the person must choose between two unfavorable options. This one tends to be most difficult to resolve and most stress inducing. (Sitting in traffic jam ve being stuck at airport)
James-Lang theory of emotions
- emotions result from perceiving bodily reactions / responses
physical arousal then emotion
Cannon-Bard theory of emotions
- emotions and physiological reactions occur at the same time
- think - cannon ball hits all at once
Schacter’s two-factor theory
the experience of emotions is due to both physiological arousal and cognitive labeling (roller coaster arousal + label (anxiety or fear depending on person)
- attributed to concluding that misery loves company.
- also tied to epinephrine studies = created a physiological response Post injection of epi. If told about epi effects they just reported being aroused. When not told about the effects of epi they looked to environment to interpret how they felt.
frustration aggression vs. social learning theory
frustration aggression = aggression is always due to frustration and frustration will always lead to some form of aggression
social learning theory = we learn to be aggressive by observing models behaving aggressively and by seeing others rewarded for aggression
conformity
- influence by 3 main factors
- normative social influence = pressure to conform based on a need for approval. Explains conformity in NOT AMBIGUOUS/clear situations leading to public acceptance. Done to avoid ridicule/rejection.
- informational social influence = pressure to conform based on the belief that the other person is more knowledgeable. Explains conformity in AMBIGUOUS situations leading to private acceptance.*
- reference groups = based on people we like, admire, want to resemble
obedience
- following a direct command, usually from someone in authority
- 3 key elements = power of the person in position of authority, who will be responsible for consequences, and gradualism
deindividation
the process of letting go of one’s self-identity and adopting the identity of the group
additive vs. disjunctive vs. conjunctive vs compensatory group tasks
additive = everyone’s efforts are combined
disjunctive = the performance of the most effective group member is used (example - who has the best idea?)
conjunctive = groups success is limited by the least effective member (example = one person makes a mistake and it effects everyone)
Compensatory= each member’s effort is averaged for a single project (ex= all group final scores are averaged and final average is final grade, no individual grades)
social facilitation
when an individual’s task performance is enhance by the mere presence of others (most common when the task is familiar simple)
social inhibition
when an individual’s task performance is comprimised by the mere presence of others (most common when the task is new or complex)
etic vs. emic view of people
etic = traditional, everyone is the same regardess of cultural influences
emic = multicultural, there is no single model that will suit everyone equally and cultural norms and values play a role
acculturation vs. enculturation
acculturation = members of one culture learn about and adopt the beliefs / behaviours of another
enculturation = learning more about one’s own culture, influence primarily by family and home
assimilation vs. separation vs. integration vs. marginalization
assimilation = accept new culture, reject own culture
separation = accept own culture, reject new culture
integration = accept new culture, accept own culture (ACCEPT BOTH)
marginalization = reject both new culture and own culture (REJECT BOTH)
cultural encapsulation
- significantly impedes effective psychotherapy
- occurs when the therapist makes narrow assumptions about reality, minimizes cultural variation among individuals, disregards evidence about the superiority of the dominant culture, etc.
high context vs. low context communication
high = situation and non-verbal cues significant affect the meaning of what is verbalized (in other words - the same words can have entirely different meaning depending on how and when they are said
low = the meaning of what is communicated is based on what is explicitly said (in other words - say what you mean, be direct)
4 stages of gay & lesbian development (Troi, senses confusion, but I assume he’s committed to singing)
(1) sensitization - feeling different as a child
(2) identity confusion - recognition of homosexual feelings/impulses, denial/avoidance common
(3) identity assumption - reduction in social isolation
(4) commitment - openness about sexual orientation
5 stages of racial identity development (Atkinson, mitten & Sue; Conform-DR-IA)
(1) conformity - preference for dominant culture
(2) dissonance - beginning to appreciate pieces of minority culture, beginning to question dominant culture
(3) resistance - strong sense of identification with minority culture, rejection of dominant culture
(4) introspective - deeper analysis of feelings, beginning to see positives from both cultures
(5) synergetic articulation and awareness - appreciation of both cultures
5 stages of black identity development (Cross, PEIII)
(1) pre-encounter: idealize/prefer white culture, negative attitudes of black culture
(2) encounter: question views of black and white culture due to exposure to racism
(3) immersion-emersion: reject white culture and immerse in own black culture
(4) internalization: have positive black identity and tolerate differences.
(5) internalization-commitment: committed to social activism to reduce forms of oppression and have internalized black identity
6 stages of white racial identity development (Helm, CDR-PIA)
(1) contact - white individuals are ignorant of their privilege / racism
(2) disintegration - begin to feel uncomfortable about the advantages of being white (may deny existence of racism in order to cope)
(3) reintegration - acknowledge white identity, endorses white racial superiority
(4) pseudo-independence - beginning to question the proposition that Black’s are innately inferior to Whites, being associating more with people of color
(5) immersion/emersion - examination of self-identity
(6) autonomy - achieves a positive redefinition of being White
collateral culture
values family and social connectedness (example - Hispanic culture)
treatment approaches for Hispanics
- active, concrete, solution-focused
treatment approaches for African Americans
- establish a positive therapeutic alliance in first few sessions, convey respect, prioritize and egalitarian relationship, consider a multisystemic approach (school, church, social services, extended family)
treatment approaches for Asian Americans
- structured approach, therapist is active and directive
treatment approaches for Native Americans
- controversial opinions on this… some believe a non-directive approach is best, some believe it is bad; family therapy (including extended family members) should be used when possible
-network therapy
cultural syndromes
clusters of syndromes and attributions that tend to occur among people in specific groups/communities
cultural idioms* of distress (think idiom= language that expresses distress)
share or collective ways of expressing distress that may not involve specific syndromes or symptoms
example = somatization (stomach pains, cardiopulmonary symptoms), shared phrases used by members of different cultures to express distress and shared ways for talking about personal/social concerns
cultural explanations /perceived causes
ways of explaining illness, symptoms, or distress
internal responsibility, external control
“It’s my fault and there’s nothing I can do about it”
*cant work with IC-IR
external responsibility, external control
“It’s society’s fault and I can’t do anything about it”
external responsibility, internal control (IC- ER)
“It’s society’s fault and there IS something I can do about it”
- cant work with IC-IR
internal responsibility, internal control
“It’s my fault and I can do something about it”
- can’t work with IC-ER
Robbers cave study & superordibate goals
Superord. Goals (goals that can be achieved only when hostile groups work together cooperatively) can reduce inter-group hostility… essentially helping enemies become friends
Aversive vs symbolic vs ambivalent covert racism
All forms of covert racism.
Aversive - holding egalitarian beliefs and consciously rejecting prejudice, meanwhile harbouring unconscious attitudes/biases against other racial groups. Typically acquired early in life.
Symbolic: express racism indirectly often through opposition to policies and practices that are perceived as promoting racial equality
Ambivalent: have positive and negative attitudes about minority group members. When these are in conflict» emotional tension»amplification of positive/negative attitudes
Cultural paranoia (healthy vs functional)
Healthy: normal suspicion and distrust due to discrimination. These individuals are willing to self disclose to minority therapists but not white therapists unless the therapist talks to them about the paranoia and encourages the client to ID when it is vs not safe to disclose
Functional: unhealthy and involves pervasive suspicion/distrust. Unwilling to disclose to minority or white therapist.
Microassault vs microinsults vs microinvalidation
Microassault: old fashion racism, overt acts/name calling
Microinsult: verbal & nonverbal messages that imply person of colour is dangerous or deviant to other races (got job bc of affirmative action)
Microinvalidation: colour blindness, unwillingness to acknowledge race, assert race has no effect on success/outcomes (complimenting on good English when seeing minority)
Ultimate attribution error (focus on both) vs group attribution error (focus on 1)
Ultimate attribution: Occurs when negative behaviours of members own in group are attributed to situational factors while negative out groups are attributed to dispositional factors & vice versa for positive behaviours
Group attribution error: people believe that individual group member beliefs, attitudes and preferences are the same as those of all members of the group.
False consensus error
Not an attributional bias
Tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people share our opinions, values and beliefs
Study: people told they failed/pass, thought others would also fail/pass.
Excitation transfer
Arousal caused by one stimulus is added to arousal from second stimulus and the combined arousal is attributed erroneously to second stimulus (think bridge study)
Representative heuristic is most similar to which fallacy
Base rate fallacy (tend. To ignore/underuse base rate information and to rely on instead on irrelevant information).
Some believe base rate fallacy results from relying on the representative heuristic.
Informational influence strongest when task is…
Ambiguous and difficult
Informational influence: conform to judgements of others when they think others know more
Infra humanization
Ingroup favoritism
Outgroup derogation
More likely to see altruistic vs egoistic motivation after what event?
Tragedy (I.e. 9/11)
Causal attributions (optimistic vs pessimistic style)
Causal= inferences people draw about causes of own/others behaviours. Can be internal (dispositional) or external (situational).
- optimistic style= external, unstable and specific
- pessimistic style= internal, stable, global
Kelley’s covariation model
People make attributions about others behaviours considering 3 types of information= 1) consensus 2) consistency & 3) distinctiveness.
When all 3 are high= external attribution (hint: think of distinctiveness). When all 3 are low= internal attribution
Automatic vs controlled cognitive processing and which causes cognitive errors
Automatic=fast/efficient/outside of awareness
Controlled= slow+effortful+in awareness
Automatic causes errors
Confirmation bias
Tend to seek and pay attention to information that confirms our beliefs and ignores information that refutes it. *PLAYS role in maintaining self concept: we spend time with those who provide feedback/confirm our self concepts
Illusory correlation vs illusory control
Correlation= overestimate the relationship between 2 variables that are not related or only slightly related. Role in negative stereotype prejudice
Control= when people believe they can influence events outside of their control. Ex: winning ticket has fav #, blow in dice before rolling
Base rate fallacy
Tend to ignore/underuse base rate information (information about most people) and instead to be influenced by distinctive features of the case being judged
Ex= juries more likely to be persuaded by anecdotal information vs probability base rate info
Gambler’s fallacy
People believe that a particular chance event is affected by previous events* or that chance will even out in short run.
Ex= coin toss, 5xs next one will be tails, gambling machine
Counterfactual thinking
(What if/if only thinking) Tend to imagine what might have happened/alternative scenarios/events could lead to different outcomes. Good or bad.
Most likely to occur if event is personally significant and easy to imagine an alternative outcome
Spotlight effect
Similar to imaginary audience in Elkin/Formal operations Piaget stage.
Think people take note of actions/appearance
Illusion of transparency
Similar to spotlight. People overestimate extent to which people can detect thoughts/feelings/internal states
Study: gross drink, people know I hated it.
Hindsight bias
Knew it all along effect
Feeling like you predicted what happened/saw it happening= Overestimate likelihood that they could have predicted event that would occur.
Why it occurs: 1) need to see world as orderly 2) reconstructive memory: automatically updated with new information
Sunk cost fallacy (Concorde fallacy)
Tend to continue investing resources ($ or time) when they already invested significant resources that have not produced desired outcomes/are not recoverable.
Simulation heuristic and connection to counterfactual thinking
Simulation heuristic requires counterfactual thinking
Anchoring & adjustment heuristic
Estimate frequency by beginning with a starting point and then making up/down adjustments
Social influence & psychological reactance (think COVID)
Occurs when people feel pressure to behave in a particular way threatens their personal freedom and they attempt to regain their freedom by doing the opposite of what has been requested or acting aggressively toward person who made the request
Milgram study
More than pathological fringe (1/1,000) gave highest shock. No differences in genders. Replicated study (Burger) following APA guidelines found same findings.
study modifications that gave different outcomes: in run down building, give orders by phone, teacher/learner in same room.
Why it happened 1)agentic state (agent not executioner of orders) 2) fast pace of study not give people a chance to think/reflect on actions 3) high shock was gradually given so subjects didn’t recognize it was unreasonable
Confirmity to group norms (sherif/ autokinetic phenomenon & asch studies)
Sherif= auto kinetic phonomenon> light study. Found people conformed answers/estimates to group norms (what others said)
Asch= extended on sherif. In this study subjects also conformed when stimulus was both ambiguous and when other participants were wrong.
Foot in the door tactic vs door in the face
Foot: small request»big request. (Why it works= people like to act in consistent ways, saying no to second request would not be consistent)
Door: big request» small request (why it works=perceptual contrast- second is more reasonable and feeling need to reciprocate to seller’s concession by agreeing with second request)
Helping in emergency situations (5 steps+obstacles)
1) notice event (might not notice due to: preoccupation with own thoughts+stimulus overload)
2)interpret event as emergency (might not happen due to: ambiguous situation+pluralistic ignorance (others don’t take action so you don’t)
3) assume responsability (might not happen due to: diffusion of responsability (less likely as numbers go up, more likely when only 1 bystander present)
4) determine how to help (if they don’t know how to help they won’t help)
5) decide whether to help or not (even if they’re competent they might not help bc of evaluation apprehension- concern of being judged by others negatively)
Altruism vs egoistical helping
Empathy-Altruism hypothesis: empathic concern»altruism helping (bc they feel concerned for their well-being)
Negative state relief model: help others to reduce own distress (egoistic)
Most support for empathy/atruism hypothesis. Also more likely to be sustained helping than with negative state relief model.
Pettigrew’s Realistic conflict theory (discrimination/prejudice)
Competition between groups is due to competition for scarce resources. Evidence: robbers cave study
Social ID theory (discrimination/prej)
Natural tendency to categorize people into groups + favour in group vs outgroup (+ feeling for in group= high self esteem; - feeling for our group= +discrimination/prejudice)
Scapegoat theory
Dominant groups discriminate to vent frustrations/disappointments (I.e. unemployment times» + discrimination/prejudice)
Authoritarian personality theory
People with harsh/restrictive upbringing + authoritarian qualities + high F (fascism) scale score = + ethnocentrism and prejudice
Terror management theory
Bio drive to stay alive and protect self from threats to life. Increase mortality rates increase negative evals for out groups, increase positive evals for in groups and increase stereotypical thinking + preference for stereotypic confirming individuals.
Methods to increase mortality salience: imagine own death, complete a death anxiety scale, interview near a funeral home, expose to subliminal death related words
Dehumanizations (prejudice)
Prejudice can be blatant (view out group as non human) vs subtle (view out group as less than human.)
Subtle» infra humanization theory. + primary and secondary emotions attributed to in group= more empathy/pro social behaviours. less primary and secondary emotions attributed to outgroup= less empathy, + prejudice
Allport’s contact hypothesis and how it reduces prejudice/discrimination
1) members have equal status
2) members work together to achieve common goals (superordinate)
3) authorities/laws/customs sanction contact
4) there is no competition
Structural vs institutional vs interpersonal vs intrapersonal/internalized racism
Structural: laws, practices (funding schools via local property taxes, favour W neighborhoods)
Institutional: processes in institutions (zero tolerance policies in schools expel more minorities)
Interpersonal: dominant groups behave in ways that harm other groups (micro aggressions)
Internalized: internalize positive and negative stereotypes (colorism)
Sexism (ambivalent sexism theory)
Hostile sexism: hostile to those who violate traditional standards. (Feminists, working moms)
Benevolent sexism: supportive to women who stick to traditional standards (stay at home moms)
Stereotypes (self stereotype vs stereotype threat)
Self stereotype: people’s unconscious internalization of stereotypes for own group (W adopt stereotype bad at math if they think they will fail math exam)
Stereotype threat: situational factors activate stereotype assimilation/self stereotype. R= OA who read article on age related memory decline did worse on cog task. Why? + arousal, stress and negative thoughts about self impaired cognitive processes/perf
Shooter bias
Civilians showed bias. Regardless of race.
Cops didn’t. Had easier time detecting gun/accuracy of shooting. But showed bias when thinking quickly (shot armed B more quickly and not shot unarmed W more quickly). (So bias in response time NOT accuracy)
Person’s familiarity with stereotype that black men were dangerous was more predictive of shooter bias than person’s prejudice
Multidimensional model of racial identity (Sellers; what are 4 dimensions, how is it different from other models of black racial identity)
**SCRI
4 dimensions:
1) racial salience: extent to which race is relevant in self concept
2) race centrality: race ID relative to other identities (religion, gender) ie. stability vs salience
3) racial regard: private (feelings towards oneself as an AA) and public regard (perception of how others view AA)
4) racial ideology: beliefs about how AA should live/interact. Ideologies: nationalist, oppressed minority, assimilationist, humanist (vary per context)
** difference: doesn’t depict stages but recognizes variability across time/situations
Helm’s White Racial Identity Development (CDRPIA) & Respective IPS strategy
- Contact: lack of awareness of racism/satisfied with status quo. IPS: obliviousness
- Disintegration: become aware of race related dilemas/contradictions that cause confusion and anxiety . IPS: suppression/ambivalence
- Reintegration: attempt to resolve dilemmas, by believing whites are superior and blame minorities. IPS: selective perception and negative out group distortion.
- Pseudo-independence: faced with event that makes them question beliefs. Superficial tolerance of minorities. IPS: reshaping reality and selective perception
- Immersion-Emersion: search for meaning of racism and understand meaning of white & white privilege*. IPS: hypervigilence and reshaping
- Autonomy: develop non racist ID, value diversity. IPS: flexibility and complexity
- therapists white identity status impacts effectiveness with minority clients
Wothington Multidimensional model of heterosexual identity development (5 stages, and tie to Marcia’s ID model)
*think U-ADDS worth
Involves 2 interacting processes: individual sexual identity process + social identity process
5 stages:
1) unexplored commitment: reflects societal and familial mandates. Avoidance of self exploration. (Foreclosure)
2) active exploration: purposeful exploration and experimentation. (Moratorium)
3) diffusion: absence of active exploration and commitment (confusion, not limited to sexual ID; same name in Marcia)
4) deepening & commitment: progression towards greater commitment, solidification for sexual o./values/needs.
5) synthesis: integration of sexual identity with other identities (holistic view of self).
Research= sexual minorities have more established identities in Marcia’s model. Hetero= less established identities: ID foreclosure, moratorium, diffusion.
In sellers multidimensional model of racial identity (salience, centrality, regard and ideology) which of all these 4 is dependant on situation and which are stable across situations?
Salience is relevant to the person’s self concept at a particular point in time, so it depends on circumstances.
All others: centrality, regard and ideology are stable across situations.
Loss aversion
Tendency for people to weigh losses more heavily than gains.
For example: Tvertsky and kahneman: found that the aggravation caused by losing a specific amount of money is about twice as intense as the satisfaction caused by gaining the same amount of $
Minority stress theory (distal vs proximal factors)
Both factors increase the risk for mental health problems in sexual minority individuals
Distal= external stressors, include prejudice, discrimination, violence, racism (distance away from person/away)
Proximal= internal stressors, concealment of sexual I’d, perceived stigma and internalized heterosexism
Therapist/client Relationships based on Helm’s model (progressive relationships, parallel relationship and crossed relationship)
Progressive relationship: occurs when therapist has more flexible and integrated racial ID than client, best for client = pseudo + disintegration
pseudo+ contact
Parallel relationship: stable/good both have not progressive ID = reintegration + contact
Crossed relationship: NOT effective for client/bad, client has more progressive ID than therapist = reintegration + immersion/emersion
** remember contact Dr. PIA
Social comparison theory (Leon Festinger)
Centres on idea that most people have a need to establish accurate self evaluations
Barnum effect
Predicts that people tend to accept vague or general descriptions of themselves as accurate descriptions. Used to explain that astrological predictions or descriptions are accurate
Norm of reciprocity
Expectation that people will help as opposed to hurt others who have helped them
Issue with Eurocentric perspective on traditional forms of therapy
Emphasize one on one problem solving and adopt an atomistic, linear and reductionist cause-effect approach*
Scarcity tap
“scarcity trap,” not only a preoccupation with an unfilled need but also with self-defeating behaviors that perpetuate scarcity. For example, a person with limited financial resources may postpone getting a broken car taillight fixed but then gets a ticket for the broken taillight, which results in an additional expense.
