Social and Cultural Diversity

Question 1

demographics and other characteristics in the US

Answer 1

hispanics (over 60 million) encompass more than 20 nationalities with mexican and puerto rican being the largest groups.

by 2050, all the racially marginalized groups combined will become larger than the non-hispanic white population.

over 21 percent of the population over four years of age speaks a language at home other than english.

the median age of the US population is over 38; non-hispanic whites are the oldest group.

the aging of the baby boomers (born between 1946 and 1964) continues to result in the graying of the US. about 10,000 baby boomers reach 65 years of age every day. over 16 of the population is over 65.

the baby busters (born between 1965 and 1976) are sometimes referred to as generation x. they are characterized by seeking stimulation, wanting the facts, wanting the right answers, wanting exciting non-boring jobs, and keeping options open.

millennials (echo boomers, internet generation, generation y) are the largest living generation and follow gen x individuals. they were raised to be self-confident, tech aware, goal oriented, civic minded, and multiculturally inclusive.

more than 50 percent of marriages begin as cohabitations (about 6 percent of all adults) decreasing the marriage rate, increasing the age of first marriage, and increasing the number of children born out of wedlock. over 40 percent of children are born to unmarried women and the majority of such births occur within cohabitating unions.

about 24 percent of households consist of a married couple and their children; families are averaging less than two children. one in three people aged 18 to 34 live in their parent’s home; that number was one in five in 1975.

over 40 percent of first marriages end in separation or divorce. remarriages have declined in number as cohabitation has become more accepted. one in six newlyweds are married to someone of a different race or ethnicity.

sandwich generation parents are those who are caring for their own children as well as their elderly parents.

females comprise about 51 percent of the population; for anyone born now in the US, the life expectancy is about 79 years of age.

women comprise about 47 percent of the labor force. about 58 percent of all women are in the labor force compared to 69 percent of all men.

during the past decade, the percentage of adolescents who have a driver’s license, who tried alcohol, who dated, and who work for pay has decreased significantly.

Question 2

socialization process

Answer 2

biological factors, including hormones, influence development. many social factors interact with biological and physical characteristics during the individual’s development. some major social factors are:

parents and parenting styles such as authoritarian and permissive

peers and the modeling of peer behaviors including play

television and social media

most children achieve a sense of gender identity by the age of three.

each gender has a role, a set of gender expectations prescribing how people should think, act, and feel. these expectations are promoted by family, school, religion, peers, culture, and society in general.

Question 3

people are products of five different cultures

Answer 3

universal - as human beings we are biologically alike; we have the same biological needs.

ecological - humans are influenced by where they live such as norther versus temperate climates. language is influenced by the region we live in - also by what we eat, wear, and live in.

national - this represents a country often with the same (one) language. a central government establishes laws, policies, and institutions. each country has a world view and citizens socialize each other accordingly through education and other means.

region - this is a culture specific to a region within a nation. in the US, this could be the south, midwest, etc.

racioethnic - race refers to assumed biological differences including physical features that are used by people to identify majority and minority groups. one may be treated as inferior; race related cultures develop. ethnic refers to practices, language, and learnings of a group and style of living which are often regionally or culturally based.

Question 4

differences within ethnic minority groups

Answer 4

most ethnic group minorities are characterized by large differences between members of the group. these differences are found across a range of variables including values, attitudes, behaviors, education, racial identity development, and acculturation. socioeconomic differences within an ethnic group must also be recognized.

Question 5

culture and social class

Answer 5

culture is the set of values and behaviors that are learned and passed on within an identifiable community. it includes the symbols and products of that community including such things as language, music, food, and rituals.

social class relates to different levels of material possessions or economic advantage including assets and month.

related to social class are values, language, interpersonal relationship style, worldview, different levels of opportunity, respect, and influence.

counselors and clients are the products of their respective cultures and social class. in cross cultural counseling, the behaviors, thoughts, and values of clients must be viewed from that culture’s perspective.

Question 6

cultural pluralism

Answer 6

cultural pluralism refers to the broad categories of individuals who may have special concerns and needs or seek respect, representation, and development in society. these categories include: racial, ethnic and religious classifications, women, elderly, single-parent families, divorced, disabled, queer and trans people, poor, children, and young adults.

Question 7

cultural norms

Answer 7

these norms represent a group’s basic interpretation of life. norms provide the values for living and lifestyle.

Question 8

prejudice and microaggressions

Answer 8

prejudice is a preconceived judgment or opinion without just grounds or sufficient knowledge. it may be positive or negative. it is often an irrational attitude or behavior directed against an individual or group.

many isms exist including racism, classism, ageism, sexism, weightism, and ableism.

a microaggression can be any comment, action, or gesture an individual experiences as hurtful or inappropriate based on their personal characteristics or history.

often directed at racial or ethnic minorities as well as women and individuals with disabilities, microaggressions may communicate hostile slights or insults and may be intentional or unintentional.

Question 9

racism

Answer 9

racism is the belief that some races are inherently superior to others. it can be expressed on an individual, institutional, or cultural basis. disproportionality is the process of treating some school-age children differently than others by referring them to special education or disciplinary procedures. the result is these children may experience unneeded special services, less rigorous curricula, lower expectations, and more disciplinary consequences.

Question 10

ethnocentrism

Answer 10

ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own group is the center of everything; it sets the standard. this may cause intergenerational conflict when younger members begin to adopt attitudes and behaviors of other cultures around them.

Question 11

white privilege

Answer 11

this refers to the subtle advantages and entitlements that white people experience, usually without their awareness. such individuals have been raised with the perception that their lives are normative, average, and ideal and that the lives of other white people are the same. benefits and entitlements accrue to white men. white women and other white individuals of special groups such as sexual minorities and people with disabilities would experience the privilege differentially.

Question 12

acculturation

Answer 12

acculturation is the extent to which an individual from a racial or ethnic minority adopts and incorporates the values, beliefs, and customs of the dominant culture.

Question 13

assimilation

Answer 13

assimilation is the extent to which an individual has changed so much that they are absorbed in to the dominant group losing their own original values and behaviors.

Question 14

cultural differences and testing bias

Answer 14

historically, the scientific literature argued for differences between minorities and whites. pathology and deficiency were more associated with minorities.

arthur jensen and others suggested genetic differences in intelligence. the bell curve by hernstein and murray continued that line of thinking. testing for differences predictable found differences between cultural and racial groups, often a function of the assessment instruments.

environment and class factors explain academic achievement differences.

Question 15

cultural encapsulation

Answer 15

from gilbert wrenn, this term refers to:

the substitution of model stereotypes for the real world

disregarding cultural variations - believing in some universal notion of truth

use of a technique-oriented definition of the counseling process. for example, a gestalt therapist might only use certain gestalt techniques, no matter who the client or what the problem.

Question 16

worldview

Answer 16

worldview is how an individual perceives their relationship with the world including its institutions, other peoples, things, and nature. worldviews are comprised of our attitudes, values, opinions, and concepts and affect how we think, make decisions, behave, and define events. two views of the world are:

emic - the belief that you need to understand and help groups from their perspectives and culture; specific focus

etic - the belief that you have a global view of humanity; we are more similar than different; focus is on similarities instead of differences

Question 17

multicultural counseling

Answer 17

this is counseling which addresses and comprises all components of various cultural environments together with pertinent theories, techniques, and practices of counseling. cross-cultural counseling takes place within the larger socio-political environment which cannot be ignored.

counseling might involve network therapy, such network therapy may include intervention with immediate family members, extended family, and important persons in the client’s community including religious or spiritual leaders and other respected individuals.

introductions may be important; someone from the culture (a respected person, perhaps) could introduce the counselee to the counselor. to be effective with many cross-cultural clients, the counselor may need to foster a relationship on a personal level through ‘small talk’ and more personal sharing than may be true with white clients. with hispanics, the counselor must be sensitive to and aware of familism, the client’s strong identification with and attachment to family.

ivey, d’andrea, and ivey developed a multicultural counseling theory and believe multicultural counseling should make use of indigenous helping ules and striks a balance between individual, family, and cultural issues.

atkinson suggested that traditional time-bound, space-bound cathartic psychotherapy may not be relevant to many cross-cultural clients. the following roles of the counselor may be more relevant: advocate, change agent, consultant, advisor, facilitator of indigenous support systems, and facilitator of indigenous healing methods.

Question 18

counselors have underlying assumptions (typical of white middle-class counselors)

Answer 18

concern and respect for the uniqueness of clients

emphasis on inherent worth and dignity of all regardless of race, creed, etc.

high priority placed on helping others reach their self-determined goals

valuing freedom and opportunity to explore one’s characteristics

future oriented promise of a better life

white counselors often have a eurocentric perspective and view of the world. there is a need to ascertain the assumptions which cross-cultural clients bring.

Question 19

characteristics of counseling - sources of conflicts between counselors and clients from different cultures

Answer 19

the following characteristics may pertain to counseling:

culture-bound values - counseling tends to be individual centered with verbal/emotional and behavioral expressiveness, with defined communication patterns, openness, and intimacy

class-bound values - strict adherence to a time schedule (50 minutes, each week), ambiguous/unstructured approach to problems, and seeking long-range goals or solutions

language variables - there is use of standard English and the emphasis is on verbal communication

Question 20

issues of culture and class in cross cultural counseling

Answer 20

normative behavior - each culture has a set of norms pertaining to almost every phase of existence

structuring - defining the counseling situation may be necessary, client and counselor roles may need to be defined

transference and countertransference - feelings and attitudes toward each other’s culture are likely to be present

language - verbal and nonverbal language may be highly specific to cultures; client and counselor may speak different languages

personalism - clients from some cultures like to get to know the counselor first as a person

diagnosis - there must be sensitivity to making judgments about clients and their problems; what is strange to you may not be strange to them, use of tests may be contraindicated

Question 21

responsibilities of counselors working with clients from different cultures

Answer 21

confront, become aware of biases, stereotypes, values, etc.

become aware of culturally different worldviews, values, biases, etc.

develop appropriate help-giving practices, intervention strategies, etc. that take into account the historical, cultural, political, and environmental experiences and influences of different cultures

develop awareness for and competence in client/student advocacy, systems advocacy, and social/political advocacy

develop an awareness of transnationalism, access and use culture-centered interventions, understand the intersectionality of multiple identities within the same individual, understand diverse white identities

counselors working cross-culturally should use a variety of techniques to help the client achieve freedom from any ongoing oppression they feel, without achieving this freedom, they will continue to experience pain and anger

Question 22

racial/cultural identity development model

Answer 22

this is a conceptual framework to help counselors understand the attitudes and behaviors of culturally different clients. these have implications for counseling. five stages of development of a minority individual:

conformity - self-depreciation attitude and identification with the majority

dissonance - current self-concept is challenged; there is a conflict between appreciating and depreciating self

resistance and immersion - the individual accepts/endorses the minority views and rejects the majority resulting in self-appreciating

introspection - the individual moves from the intensity of feelings in the r&i stage and becomes concerned with the basis of self-appreciating

integrative awareness - the individual can own and appreciate minority and dominant aspects of both cultures

in writing of this process, janet helms speaks of ego statuses (not stages) and suggests a dynamic evolution rather than static structures of types. some believed this process occurred for whites as well as people of color.

Question 23

white identity development model

Answer 23

whites may go through similar racial/cultural identity development because they also experience societal forces including racist attitudes and beliefs. the same stages are possible culminating for some whites in integrative awareness from which a nonracist identity emerges.

Question 24

counselor training issues - multicultural counseling

Answer 24

counselors should develop competencies in cross-cultural counseling. courses should include a consciousness-raising component, an affective component, an affective component, a knowledge component, and a skills component.

training programs should realize that we are feeling, thinking, behaving, social, cultural, and political beings. this might be termed ‘systematic eclecticism’.

in addition to affective empathy, counselors may develop cognitive empathy. this reflects the counselor’s learning about the client’s cultural background, daily life, hopes, fears, and aspirations.

Question 25

cross-cultural family counseling

Answer 25

because of between and within family differences in a culture, the family counselor must learn about the counseling issues within the particular family in its particular culture. world views and values of family members should be ascertained. traditional cultural family structure and extended family ties must be recognized. family members’ interpersonal relationships must be identified. the cross-cultural family counselor should identify the usual help-giving networks and structures which already exist for the cross-cultural family.

Question 26

gender-based counseling

Answer 26

counselors must be aware that men and women have been socialized differently in this country. stereotyping and such issues as societal discrimination and different role expectations are based on gender.

Question 27

counseling women

Answer 27

the application of long-standing theories of development and personality to women may be inappropriate because of their focus on men. women’s development, interactions and expressive patterns are different than men’s.

sexism is the belief that women should be treated differently because of and not according to their abilities. women are more susceptible to some psychological problems, like depression, than are men.

women are more apt to initiate counseling than men, and to be more emotionally expressive. focus must include attention to their unique attributes, history, and socialization patterns. developmental and physiological issues cannot be ignored. many women experience conflicts in the multiple roles they are expected to fulfill including childbearing and child-rearing, homemaking, and career.

the feminist approach to therapy directs awareness of counselors to the historical oppression, marginalization, and cultural limitations to which women have been subjected.

Question 28

counseling men

Answer 28

socialization patterns for men include expectations that they be active, competitive, and generally, emotionally unexpressive. their lives are more clearly laid out for them in terms of work and family responsibilities. the words and behaviors men use are less revealing of their inner worlds.

men are less apt to initiate counseling than women, and once there tend to deal with their problems cognitively rather than affectively. denial of problems and feelings, or simple inability to express them, may characterized the male in counseling. men in counseling may be very goal oriented. group work for men may be effective in allowing members to build a community, make them aware that other men have similar problems, and provide a comfort level to challenge each other around defenses and denials.

Question 29

counseling lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer people (lgbtq)

Answer 29

counselors should be aware of the history of abuse and discrimination which gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, and queer people have experienced and continue to face. the emotional and psychological difficulties of coming out to family, significant others, and in school and workplace are often overwhelming.

sexuality is on a continuum and counselors must educate themselves about different sexual orientations and be able to assist their clients, not just in problem resolution and adjustment, but in accommodating themselves to an often hostile world.

these are some of the concepts/definitions used in the lgbtq community:

ally - a person who confronts heterosexism, sexism, and homophobia in self and others who is committed to social justice and equal rights

cisgender - a term for individuals whose gender identity generally matches that assigned for their physical sex

gender - a socially constructed concept that ascribes qualities of femininity and masculinity to people

genderfluid - a person who shifts in gender identity and/or expression

non-binary - a term describing anyone whose gender identity falls outside the binary of woman/man

polyamorous - refers to the state or practice of having more than one romantic relationship during a period of time

transgender - umbrella term for those whose gender identity does not match with that assigned for their physical sex

pronouns are tools we use to refer to people. you can’t always know what someone’s pronouns are by looking at them. to show you respect or validate an individual, you could ask what pronouns they use or what pronouns they would like you to use when referring to them.

it is important for counselors to let clients know they are accepting and sensitive to clients with varying sexual orientations. the last fifteen years have seen significant progress on behalf of the lgbtq community which include:

as of 2015, 4.5 percent of adult americans identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual

as of 2013, the US supreme court ruled the US congress passed defense of marriage act (doma) was unconstitutional

as of 2015, all state-level bans on same-sex marriage were declared unconstitutional by the supreme court

about 91 percent of fortune 500 companies protect workers based on sexual orientation

the gender and sexualities alliance (gsa) network clubs are found in over 4,000 high schools and middle schools

the number of openly lgbtq elected state and national officials is increasing each year, all states had such openly identified individuals

Question 30

social influence model of counseling

Answer 30

stanley strong viewed counseling as an interpersonal influence process. the counselee may view the counselor as having these characteristics:

expert - has formal training, experience, and special knowledge

attractive - the counselor is perceived as similar to the client; the client has a desire to gain the counselor’s approval

trustworthy - the counselor is perceived as wanting to help and is caring

Question 31

YAVIS and QUOID

Answer 31

acronyms for certain kinds of desirable and undesirable clients:

young, attractive, verbal, intelligent, successful

quiet, ugly, old, indigent, dissimilar culturally

Question 32

motivation

Answer 32

intrinsic motivation - internal desire to be competent and to do something for its own sake

extrinsic motivation - drive to do something influenced by external rewards and punishments

j rotter and others formulated the concept of internal-external control.

internal control - this is the belief that rewards and satisfaction are contingent on their own actions and that people can shape their own fate

external control - this is the belief that events occur independently of their own actions and that the future is determined more by chance and luck

attribution theory - the explanations (causal attributions) we offer for our outcomes influence our future expectancies of success and our future motivation to succeed

Question 33

self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 33

this is an expectation that individuals will act in a certain way. it is a powerful attitude especially significant in its ability to influence school children’s performance.

differential expectations by teachers of various racial and ethnic minorities based on stereotypes are common. ‘bloomers’ are those expected to perform well.

Question 34

disability and handicap

Answer 34

a disability is the actual physical or mental limitation.

a handicap exists if the disability impacts performance in one more more of life’s major roles because of some barrier, e.g. the need for a ramp to access a place of employment.

alternative conceptualizations of handicap are physically challenged, mentally challenged, other-abled or differently-abled, and handicapable.

Question 35

individuals with disabilities education improvement act of 2004 (idea)

Answer 35

in 1997, idea replaced pl94-142 education for all handicapped children’s act. the provisions of idea 2004 include:

free, appropriate public education must be assured to all children and youngsters between 3 and 21

these individuals with handicaps will be placed in the least restrictive envonment

each person has an individualized education plan (iep)

children with qualifying disabilities attending private schools or those institutionalized are also eligible for services

furthermore, the law provides for supplemental funds to communities for services to eligible children from birth through age 2 if the state meets requirements of the law.

the law requires that children with disabilities should be placed/educated with other children including those without disabilities. mainstreaming and inclusion can be inferred from the language of the law.

Question 36

americans with disabilities act (ada, 1990)

Answer 36

the act prohibits employers of 15 or more workers to discriminate in employment (or even applying for employment) against the disabled (including substance users who are in rehabilitation, alcoholics anonymous, etc.)

the act also prohibits discrimination in public and private transportation as well as access to public buildings and facilities.

officially, a disability substantially limits the individual in one or more major life activities such as caring for one’s self, performing manual tasks, walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, learning, and working.

current estimates report that 12/6 percent of the US population have varying degrees of disability. the increasing older population is a prime contributor to this estimate.

Question 37

older adults

Answer 37

over 16 percent of the population is 65 and over. at age 65, the individual has a life expectancy of about 18 years. by 2060 this group will comprise 23% of the population.

ageism includes negative attitudes and stereotypes which may suggest that older people are incompetent, forgetful, and useless.

characteristics of older adults:

by age 60 to 70 most adults have a physical impairment such as a chronic disease, sensory impairment, etc.

some intellectual decline into the 70s is possible but not inevitable.

most characteristic personality traits remain stable.

estimates suggest 10 percent of older adults may have depression and other mental illness.

few older adults receive mental health services.

typical issues older adults content with include loss, death of friends and spouses, retirement and increased leisure time, physical changes, changing family roles including dealing with adult children.

in counseling older adults, help them:

build and maintain positive attitudes toward their worth and dignity

educate society and advocate for a change in attitudes about obsolescence

use a problem-solving approach; deal with specific and immediate problems

use a structured life review process to integrate the past and prepare for the future

in terms of older workers, they:

tend to have longer unemployment periods than younger ones

their intellectual functioning is not impaired

there is a persistent and progressive decline on speeded tasks

their age is related positively to overall job satisfaction

there is an increasing need for security and affiliation

Question 38

family abuse and violence

Answer 38

child abuse and neglect is sometimes referred to as child maltreatment. abuse and neglect can be physical or psychological.

abuse occurs in all ethnic groups and cultures as well as at all socioeconomic levels.

most at risk may be children from families under stress including single parent families with few resources or social support. often the family believes in physical punishment. hyperactive, irritable, ill, premature, and defiant children are more apt to be abused than others.

although not definitively documented, most experts belief that there is a greater tendency to abuse as an adult by someone who was abused as a child.

child sexual abuse occurs most often between the ages of 7 and 13 by a male known to the child. spousal abuse and abuse of family members who are elderly or have disabilities also occurs frequently.

treatment of violence in the family requires services to the high-risk parent, the high-risk child, and other family members. the social context of the family system must be considered.

state laws require reporting suspected or actual child abuse and elder abuse.

Question 39

opioid crisis

Answer 39

opioid use has increased to crisis proportions according to some physician and government groups. opioids are typically prescribed for pain relief. other users are those who have experienced psychological trauma of some sort.

opioid use can become addictive and overdoses result in hospitalizations, and in many cases, death.

the american college of physicians recommends that prescribing physicians become more familiar with opioids are modify their prescription practices.

a princeton university study suggests that opioid use is impacting the labor force. research suggests nearly one half of men in their prime work age not in the labor force take prescription painkillers daily.

congress passed the 21st century cures act in 2016. a part of this law address the opioid crisis by providing funds for monitoring prescription drug programs and for treatment programs.

Question 40

teenage suicide

Answer 40

suicide is the second leading cause of death among 10 to 34 year olds. although the rate has declined in recent years, about 5,000 adolescents kill themselves each year. at greatest risk of suicide in this age range are american indian and alaskan natives. there is some evidence that the modest decline in gay and lesbian teen suicides may be due to the passage of laws allowing for same-sex marriages. although more girls attempt suicide, boys are more successful (about 80 percent of all suicides).

indicators to look for include depression and anger, someone talking about committing suicide, having a plan and the means to commit suicide, giving away valuable possessions, and suffering loss or rejection.

comprehensive school programs include trained staff, psychoeducational programming on coping skills, stress reduction, self-esteem, the use of support groups, a crisis plan, and community involvement.

a study published in 2017 indicates that suicide rates in general (not just teenage) are increasing in less urban, more rural areas vs. more urban areas. fewer mental health resources and greater social isolation may be contributors to this trend.

Question 41

societal stress and anxiety

Answer 41

counselors report their clients are expressing and exhibiting more stress and anxiety since 2016. some causes for the increase stress and anxiety may be:

the political atmosphere is more divisive and sometimes toxic

there is an increase in violence and terrorism

there is more divisiveness between racial and religious groups

there are changes in the protections afforded lgbtq groups

climate changes and weather dislocations are increasing

a recent apa study found that two-thirds of the US population feels stressed about the future of the nation.

counselors must be sensitive to these issues as experienced by clients. coping strategies may need to be addressed.

Question 42

climate change, dislocations, and trauma

Answer 42

climate changes influence individuals, families, and communities. climate impacts include higher temperatures, rising sea levels, and more devastating natural disasters. these climate changes may result in:

need to move out of low-lying islands and communities

more devastation from tornadoes and hurricanes

temporary/permanent displacement of populations

psychological consequences including anxiety, depression, ptsd, substance use, and suicide

counselors can influence prevention and intervention programs by promoting climate resilience, strengthening disaster response programs, and advocating for vulnerable populations.

Question 43

leon festinger

Answer 43

the concept of cognitive dissonance is associated with leon festinger. cognitive dissonance is a source of motivation - we try to reduce dissonance. for example - under pressure to make a career decision, like choosing a college major, the individual selects an occupation to reduce the stress. however, to make that selection, the person may need to rationalize that they will learn to like that occupation, that there will be jobs, etc.