Human Growth and Development Flashcards
Freud’s stages are psychosexual while Erik Erikson’s stages are:
a. psychometric
b. psychodiagnostic
c. psychopharmacological
d. psychosocial
d. psychosocial
The Freudian stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital) emphasize sexuality. Erik Erikson’s eight stages (e.g., trust versus mistrust or integrity versus despair) focus on social relationships and thus are described as psychosocial.
In Freud’s psychodynamic theory instincts are emphasized. Erik Erikson is an ego psychologist. Ego psychologists
a. emphasize id process
b. refute the concept of the superego
c. believe in man’s powers of reasoning to control behavior
d. are sometimes known as radical behaviorists
c. believe in man’s power of reasoning to control behavior
Development is defined as:
Systemic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death. These systemic changes occur in three broad areas: physical development, cognitive development, and psychosocial development.
Theories of how humans grow and develop fall into the following broad categories:
learning - including behavioral theories, social learning theories, and information-processing theories
cognitive theories
psychoanalytic - including the Neo-Freudian and ego psychology theories
humanistic theories and self theories
Human growth and development changes can be viewed as:
Qualitative: change in structure or organization (e.g. sexual development)
OR
Quantitative: change in number, degree, or frequency (e.g. intellectual development)
Continuous: changes are sequential and cannot be separated easily (e.g. personality development)
OR
Discontinuous: certain changes in abilities or behaviors can be separated from others which argues for stages of development (e.g. language development)
Mechanistic: this is the reduction of all behavior to common elements (e.g. instinctual, reflexive behavior)
OR
Organismic: because of new stages, there is change or discontinuity; it is more than stimulus-response; the organism is involved including the use of cognition (e.g. moral or ethical development)
Self-concept
Definition - your perception of your qualities, attributes, and traits
Birth - infants have no sense of self, changes in early months
by 24 months - most infants show signs of self-recognition; they can identify social categories they are in such as age and gender; “who is like me and who is not like me”; exhibit various temperaments
preschool - self-concept is very concrete and physical
by age 8 - can describe inner qualities
adolescence - self-concepts/self-descriptions become more abstract and psychological; stabilization of self-concept continues
cultural and family factors influence the development of attributes and some traits
developmental concepts
nature - includes genetic and hereditary factors
nurture - includes learning and environmental factors
genotype - genetic (inherited) makeup of the individual
phenotype - the way an individual’s genotype is expressed through physical and behavioral characteristics
tabula rasa - John Locke’s view that children begin as a “blank slate”, acquiring characteristics through experience
plasticity - for most individuals lifespan development is plastic representing an easy and smooth transition from one stage to the next
resiliency - the ability to adapt effectively despite the experience of adverse circumstances (e.g. some children, despite experiencing potentially damaging conditions and circumstances, seem to suffer few consequences)
neurobiology
neuroscience is sometimes referred to as the missing link in the mental health professions
ivey, d’andrea, and ivey believe that “the mind is the product of the activity occurring in the brain at the molecular, cellular, and anatomical levels, which are in turn impacted by a person’s interpersonal relationships, cultural context, and societal experience”
counselors, by using different theories, skills, and interventions promote release of various neurotransmitters which promote related brain changes. neurotransmitters affect various cognitive, emotional, psychological, and behavioral reactions that people have to their real life experiences.
neurotransmitters carry messages between neurons that stimulate reactions in the brain. these chemical reactions stimulate different parts of the brain leading to different cognitive, emotional, psychological, and behavioral outcomes.
four principal neurotransmitters important to counselors
acetylcholine - important for memory, optimal cognitive functioning, emotional balance and control
serotonin - affects feelings, behaving, thinking; critical for emotional and cognitive processes; vital to sleep and anxiety control
dopamine - important for emotional wellness, motivation, pleasurable feelings
GABA (gamma amino butyric acid) - helps reduce anxiety, promotes relaxation and sleep
different counseling and therapy skills help promote the production of each of these four neurotransmitters
abraham maslow (humanistic psychologist)
developed the hierarchy of needs
people are always motivated to higher-order needs:
food/water > security/safety > belonging/love > self-esteem/prestige/status > self-actualization
we go from filling our needs from the physiological level to the social level to the cognitive level
robert havighurst
identified stages of growth - each one requiring completion of the last one for success and happiness
developmental tasks arise from physical maturation, influences from culture and society, and desires and values of the person
developmental tasks are the skills, knowledge, behaviors, and attitudes that an individual has to acquire through physical maturation, social learning, and personal effort
behaviorism (john watson, b.f. skinner)
this is a learning approach. behaviorists believe the environment manipulates biological and psychological drives and needs resulting in development.
learning and behavior changes are the result of rewards and punishments. a reward is a positive-reinforcing stimulus which maintains or increases a behavior. when a behavior results in the termination of a positive-reinforcing stimulus or the beginning of a negative stimulus we have punishment. such a behavior should weaken or drop out.
we grow, develop, and learn through the nature of experience - the rewards and punishments we receive
law of effect
edward thorndike formulated this law which states that when a stimulus-response connection is followed by a reward (reinforcement), that connection is strengthened. in other words, a behavior’s consequences determine the probability of its being repeated.
conditioning principles
classical conditioning - food > salivation, bell > salivation
operant conditioning - pick up toys > get a hug or a cookie
reinforcement schedule - this schedule can be continuous or variable. behaviors established through variable or intermittent reinforcement are tougher to extinguish.
fixed ratio - reinforce after a fixed number of responses
variable ratio - reinforce, on the average, after every nth (e.g. 5th) response
fixed interval - reinforce after a fixed period of time
variable interval - reinforce, on the average, after every nth (e.g. 3rd) minute
spontaneous recovery - after a rest period, the conditioned response reappears when the conditioned stimulus is again presented
stimulus generalization - once a response has been conditioned, stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus are also likely to elicit the conditioned response
psychoanalytic approach and psychosexual development (freud)
there is an interaction between our internal needs/forces and the environment. freud identified five stages of development.
oral - birth to 18 months
anal - 2 to 3 years
phallic - 3 to 5 years
latency - 6 to 12 years
genital - 12 to 19 years; others have said it never ends
the phallic stage has the oedipal (son attraction to mother) and electra (daughter attraction to father) complexes. these are conflictual times for the child.
the libido is the basic energy or force of life. it consists of life instincts and death instincts.
fixation - incomplete or inhibited development at one of the stages
other psychoanalytic concepts include - castration anxiety, penis envy, pleasure principle, and reality principle
erogenous zones are areas of bodily excitation such as the mouth, anus and genitals
defense mechanisms
defense mechanisms are unconscious protective processes that help us control primitive emotions and anxiety
repression - rejecting from conscious thought (denying or forgetting) the impulse or idea that provokes anxiety
projection - avoiding the conflict within oneself by ascribing the ideas or motives to someone else
reaction formation - expressing a motive or impulse in a way that is directly opposite what was originally intended
rationalization - providing a reason for a behavior and thereby concealing the true motive or reason for the behavior
displacement - substituting a different object or goal for the impulse or motive that is being expressed
introjection - identifying through fantasy the expression of some impulse or motive
regression - retreating to earlier or more primitive (childlike) forms of behavior
denial - refusing to see something that is a fact or true in reality
sublimination - may be viewed as a positive defense mechanism wherein anxiety or sexual tension or energy is channeled into socially acceptable activities such as work
erik erikson
erikson identified eight stages wherein a psychosocial crisis or task is to be mastered. the stages, corresponding ages, and resulting ego virtue are:
trust vs mistrust - birth to 1.5 years, virtue of hope, infant develops trust if basic needs are met
autonomy vs shame and doubt - 1.5 to 3 years, virtue of will/sense of self, infant asserts self, develops independence if allowed
initiative vs guilt - 3 to 6 years, virtue of purpose/goal setting, children meet challenges, assume responsibility, identify rights of others
industry vs inferiority - 6 to 11 years, virtue of competence, children master social and academic skills or feel inferior
identity vs role confusion - adolescence, virtue of fidelity/ability to commit, individual establishes social and vocational roles and identities or is confused about adult roles
intimacy vs isolation - early adulthood, virtue or love, young adult seeks intimate relationships or fears giving up independence and becoming lonely and isolated
generativity vs stagnation - middle adulthood, virtue of care/investment in future, middle-aged adults desire to produce something of value and contribute to society
integrity vs despair - late adulthood, virtue of wisdom, older adults view life as meaningful and positive or with regrets
erikson viewed life as in constant change, the social context is important in the development of personality
jean piaget
piaget studied cognitive development/intelligence. we inherit two tendencies - organization and adaptation.
organization - how we systematize and organize mental processes and knowledge
adaptation - adjustment to the environment
two processes within adaptation - assimilation, accommodation
assimilation - modifying the relevant environmental events so they can be incorporated into the individual’s existing structure
accommodation - modifying the organization of the individual in response to environmental events
schema is another word for a mental structure that processes information, perceptions, and experiences
piaget identified four stages of cognitive development
sensorimotor - birth to 2 - the child differentiates self from objects, can think of an object not actually present, seeks stimulation
preoperational - 2 to 7 - language development is occurring, child is egocentric, has difficulty taking another’s point of view, classifies objects by one feature
concrete operational - 7 to 11 - begins logical operations, can order objects (small to large, first to last), understands conservation
formal operational - 11 to 15 - moves toward abstract thinking, can test hypotheses, logical problem solving can occur
lawrence kohlberg
kohlberg studied moral development, thinking and reasoning are involved. he identified three levels relating to the relationship between self and society.
preconventional:
stage 1 - a punishment and obedience orientation exists
stage 2 - an instrumental and hedonistic orientation exists (obtaining rewards)
conventional:
stage 3 - interpersonal acceptance orientation prevails, maintaining good relations, approval of others
stage 4 - a law and order orientation exists, conformity to legitimate authorities
postconventional:
stage 5 - social contracts and utilitarian orientation exists, most values and rules are relative
stage 6 - a self-chosen principled orientation prevails, universal ethical principles apply
daniel levinson
levinson wrote: The Seasons of a Man’s Life. he identified three major transitions/times occurring between four major eras of life.
transitions:
early adult transition - 17 to 22
mid-life transition - 40 to 45
late adult transition - 60 to 65
in adulthood, the individual copes with three sets of developmental tasks:
build, modify, and enhance life structure
form and modify single components of the life structure such as: life dream, occupation, love-marriage, family relationships, mentor, and forming mutual relationships
tasks to become more individuated
levinson believed that the majority of the men he studied experienced midlife crisis, a time of questioning their life structure including their career, this occurred in the transition period of age 40 to 45
urie bronfenbrenner
bronfenbrenner took an ecological approach to the study of human development. he believed it was important to look at all levels and systems impacting a person. for example - a troubled adolescent is a part of several systems such as family, school, peers, community, etc. we must be sensitive to influences of all these symptoms.
social-learning models
these models see the importance of social environment and cognitive factors. these go beyond behaviorism, in other words, the simply stimulus-response paradigm because we can think about the connections between our behaviors and the consequences.
albert bandura developed a social learning theory. one of the central concepts of this cognitive behavioral approach is self-efficacy, the belief that we can perform some behavior or task. self-efficacy can help explain how it is that people change. one’s self-efficacy is facilitated through four mechanisms which are:
modeling after others’ behavior
vicarious experience - watching others perform the behavior
receiving verbal persuasion from others that one can do a task
paying attention to one’s own physiological states such as emotional arousal or anxiety involves in doing the behavior
william perry
perry developed a scheme for intellectual development and ethical development. h identified three general categories and nine positions.
dualism:
1. authorities know
2. there are true authorities and wrong authorities
3. good authorities may know but may not know everything yet
relativism is discovered:
1. there may not be right or wrong answers; uncertainty may be okay
2. all knowledge may be relative
3. in an uncertain world, i’ll have to make decisions
commitment in relativism:
1. initial commitment
2. several commitments - and balancing them
3. commitments evolve, and they may be contradictory
theories of how women develop
theories of women’s development are evolving. many writers argue that gender stereotyping, male-imposed standards, and the devaluation of feminine qualities have made women second-class citizens. in the mid 70s, nancy chodorow was one of the first to speak out against the masculine bias found in psychoanalytic theory.
in toward a new psychology of women, jean baker miller indicated that a large part of women’s lives has been spent helping others develop emotionally, intellectually, and socially. this caretaking is a central concept differentiating the development of women from men.
judith jordan and others affiliated with the stone center, wellesley college, presented a developmental theory of women in 1991 which was referred to as self-in-relation theory. this theory is now known as relational-cultural theory. the principal components of this theory included:
- people grow toward relationships throughout life
- mature functioning is characterized by mutuality and deepening connections
- psychological growth is characterized by involvement in complex and diversified relational networks
- mutual empathy and empowerment are at the core of positive relationships
- growth-fostering relationships require engagements to be authentic
- growth-fostering relationships stimulate growth and change in all people
- goals of development are characterized by an increasing ability to name and resist disconnections, sources of oppression, and obstacles to mutual relationships
other writers who addressed women’s issues included
harriet lerner in the dance of intimacy believed women needed to re-evaluate their intimate relationships which may not be working, and choose a healthier balance between other-oriented and self-absorption. competent relationships allow for each person to be appreciated and enhanced, and the woman should show strength, independence, and assertiveness.
in the mismeasure of woman, carol tavris indicated that women are judged and mismeasured by their fit into a male world. in fact, both genders are more alike than different but they are perceived as different because of the roles they have been assigned. society also pathologizes women.
carol gilligan, in a different voice and other writings, believed that women view relationships and experience of relationships differently than men do. their communication patters are also different.
women use different criteria than men in making moral judgments. consequently, they score lower on kohlberg’s moral dilemma test. men use the criteria of justice and rights; women use human relationships and caring. there is overlap between men and women on the instrument.
gail sheehy
she wrote passages: predictable crises of adult life in 1976. passages are transitional periods between life stages and are different for most individuals. these passages also provide opportunities for growth - through the crises we face in making constructive changes between life stages.
other sheehy books include:
the silent passage: menopause
new passages
understanding men’s passages
passages in caregiving: turning chaos into confidence
spiritual development
some research indicates that over 90 percent of the US population has a belief in a divine power or force greater than oneself. spirituality is viewed more broadly than belief in a religion. in any case, spirituality may directly influence clients in their view of self, relationships, worldview, as well as nature and cause of perceived problems. for many individuals, their spirituality is a key component in their definition of being whole and of wellness.
counselors must be willing and able to address and identify issues of spirituality important to the client’s situation. they may have to acquire the knowledge and the language to communicate effectively with clients who have a wide variety of spirituality issues and beliefs. essentially, this process may require counselors to examine their own spirituality.
intelligence
intelligence has been defined as an ‘adaptive thinking or action’ (piaget) or ability to think abstractly. charles spearman believed there was general intelligence (g) and special abilities (s). louis thurstone identified several primary mental abilities.
intelligence is not fixed or determined solely by genetics. one’s environment, experiences, and cultural factors influence intelligence.
intelligence testing may be biased against those who have not had the opportunities to learn or experience those things the test measures.
in emotional intelligence: why it can matter more than the IQ, daniel goleman proposed that one component of intelligence can operate out of human emotions, that is, independently of the person’s reasoning and thinking processes. this emotional intelligence is a learned developmental process beginning in infancy and processeding to adulthood through varying levels of development. an emotionally intelligent person is self-motivated, empathetic, grasps social signals and nonverbal messages, and develops strong interpersonal abilities.
propinquity
this is the concept that implies nearness or proximity. for example, in selecting a partner, one is most likely to become involved with someone who lives nearby.
