Social Flashcards

Question

How does Personal Responsibility affect Obedience?

Answer 1

Participants would be more obedient when personal responsibility is removed, an places onto the shoulders of an authority figure. In a variation study where ppts had to sign a contract that stated they were taking part at their own free will and relinquishing any legal responsibility from Yale university, obedience fell to 40%

Answer 2

Personality Gender Culture

Answer 3

Locus of Control Authoritarian Personality Empathy

Answer 4

Rotter's (1966) locus of control personality theory outlines that people either have an internal or external locus of control. Internal: Individuals believe they are responsible for their own actions, and are less influenced by others. External: Individuals believe behaviour is largely beyond their control, but due to external factors such as fate. People with an external locus of control are more likely to be influenced by others.

Answer 5

These are individuals who are typically submissive to authority, but are harsh to those seen as subordinate to themselves.

Answer 6

Adorno et al: Devised the F-scale (Fascism scale), a questionnaire used to detect the authoritarian personality. Milgram + Elms: Compared the F-Scale scores for 20 obedient and defiant ppts- Obedient ppts had a higher F-scale (fascism scale), indicating an authoritarian personality type, compared to dissenters. A 2010 study stimulating Milgram's experiment found that those with high authoritarian scores were less likely to withdraw; maybe because they were submissive to the authority of the experimenter.

Answer 7

It is believed that those with high empathy would be less likely to harm others. Burger: Empathetic ppts were more likely to protest against the shocks, but this didn't translate to low obedience levels

Answer 8

1) Milgram: Milgram used predominantly male ppts in his experiments,but he did conduct one experiment that involved 40 female teachers Previous research indicated that females were more compliant than males, yet we traditional think of women as less aggressive. Milgram found that females were virtually identical to males in their levels of obedience (65%), 27.5% breaking off at the 300v level; yet their rated anxiety levels was much higher than males who were obedient. This was also found in Burger's (2009) replication 2) Blass: Found that obedience between males + females were consistent across 9 of the 10 obedience experiments he reviewed.

Answer 9

1) Sheridan + King: Adapted Milgram's exp to involve a live puppy that received genuine shocks. All 13 female ppts were much more compliant, and delivered the maximum levels of shocks, compared to men 2) Kilham + Mann: Did a direct replication of Milgram's exp in Australia. They found that females are far less obedient (16%) than male ppts (40%). This may have been sue to the learners and teachers being the same sex: the females may have joined together in an alliance to react again the aggressive male experimenter It seems there is very little,is any, gender differences in obedience; despite traditional beliefs would be more compliant to authority

Answer 10

Individualistic Culture | Collectivistic Culture

Answer 11

e.g. America + Britain They tend to behave more independently, and resist conformity/compliance. They are less likely to be obedient.

Answer 12

e.g. China + Israel They tend to behave as a collective group based on interdependence; meaning cooperation + compliance is important for group stability. They are more likely to be obedient.

Answer 13

On closer inspection of the methodologies of the research studies, it seems that the variation in % of ppts who gave the full shock is more of a product of the Procedure employed, rather than cultural variation

Answer 14

To investigate obedience - ...by partially replicating Milgram's experiment to see if situation of factors affect obedience to an authoritative figure

Answer 15

- Individuals responded to an advert in a newspaper - They were asked about physical + psychological health, and if they've attended a psychology class. - They then answered multiple questionnaires regarding their age, ethnicity, education, occupation, anxiety levels, depression levels and personality (e.g. Beck Anxiety Inventory, Beck's Depression Inventory) - Participants were then interviewed by a clinical psychologist to identify anyone who may be negatively affected by the study. - Final Sample: 70 participants- 29 males, 41 females. Age Range: 20-81 years old

Answer 16

Same procedure as Milgram, however: During the brief, ppts were reminded 3 times that they could withdraw at any time. The learner also mentioned having a heart problem. The experimenter was a clinical psychologist, instructed to stop the experiment if the ppt showed excessive distress At 150 volts the pre-recorded response of "Ugh. That's all. Get me out of here. I told you I had a heart trouble. My heart's starting to bother me now. Get me out of here please. My heart's starting to bother me. I refuse to go on. Let me out" The experiment ended at 150V. The DV was operationalised by if they wanted to proceed or not.

Answer 17

Same procedure as the baseline condition, but: There were 2 confederates involved; the 'learner', and 'Teacher 1'. The ppt was always Teacher 2. Teacher 1 and 2 matched in gender. Teacher 1 took the lead and asked the questions/gave the shocks.. Teacher 2 sat with them. At 75v, Teacher 1 hesitated after the learner grunted. At 90v, teacher 1 stated 'I don't know if I can do this'. Teacher 1 was prompted by the experimenter, but refused to carry on. The experimenter then asked Teacher 2 to continue.

Answer 18

Experiment 1: 68.35% continued after 150 volts. Experiment 2: 58.9% continued after 150 volts. There is no significant difference in obedience levels between: Burger's results and Milgram's Variation Results Baseline + Modelled Refusal Condition Males and Females

Answer 19

People are as obedient today as they were in Milgram's day: Situational factors influence obedience to an authority figure Burger stated that, although 150v was seen as the 'point of no return', he didn't know whether they would still go to the full 450v There may be personality factors inked to obedience, but it is unclear what they are.

Answer 20

Generalisability: The sample size were 29 females, 41 females, with an age range of 20-81 years. Reliability: The procedure involved someone mentioning they had a heart condition and they wanted to stop at 150v, which is standardised. The researcher measured the results using quantitative data, which is an accurate + objective strategy Internal Validity:The researcher controlled extraneous variables, like ensuring they didn't have anxiety or depression which would affect obedience.

Answer 21

Ecological Validity: The study took place in a lab; and involved a task of answering word pairs, with wrong answers leading to electric shocks increasing in size. Validity: We can only assume the participants would continue to obey after 150v Practical Application: Its difficult to assume that ppts in Burger's study would have equally obeyed Hitler, as war is so much more complex

Answer 22

Psychological Harm: Ppts were still put in an anxiety provoking situation, where they thought the shocks were harming someone Withdrawal: The verbal prompts used by the experimenter effectively removed any previously established right to withdraw.

Answer 23

Human society is hierarchal in nature: there are few at the top giving instructions on how to behave. This hierarchy must’ve evolved for survival functions, which is why some survive and others die out. This hierarchy is needed for stability, as without it, there would be chaos + social breakdown.

Answer 24

We are innately prepared to be obedient, due to exposure to authority figures from a young age (e.g. parents + teachers). They use rewards and punishments to encourage obedience +discourage dissent.

Answer 25

Socialisation: The process by which we learn the rules + norms of society through socialising agents such as teachers and parents

Answer 26

Humans exist in 2 different states: Autonomous + Agentic. An autonomous state refers to humans acting on free will. Agentic state refers to humans acting as an agent for the authority figure Moral Strain occurs when a person is asked to do something they wouldn’t choose to do themselves, and goes against their moral rights. Moral strain results in anxiety. This allows them to reject the consequences of their actions

Answer 27

Milgram Vietnam War- My Lai Hofling et al

Answer 28

65% of participants were willing to seriously harm an innocent confederate to obey an authority figure. When he debriefed the participants, many reported that their behaviour was the responsibility of the experimenter, and they didn’t want to do it

Answer 29

The village My Lai was approached by American soldiers who were ordered to shoot the occupants who were suspected to being Vietcong soldiers. Lieutenant Calley instructed his division to enter the village and shoot, despite to return of fire. The American soldiers massacred old men, women + children in the village that day after being ordered by Calley. Calley claimed to just be following orders.

Answer 30

A stooged doctor phoned a nurse working on a ward. He asked to administer twice the daily dose of a drug to the patient. Against hospital policy, the stooge doctor informed the nurse that she would sign the prescription later 21 out of 22 followed orders, and several justified their behaviour as being a result of authority

Answer 31

Individual Differences: Doesn’t take things like personality, gender, situation, etc into account Reductionist: Undermines the interconnection between nature and nurture.

Answer 32

The concept of switching to your agentic state after being in your autonomous state and experiencing moral strain is an internal mental process that can’t be directly measured. There is no direct evidence for the evolutionary basis of obedience.

Answer 33

Doesn’t explain motivational issues behind obedience

Answer 34

Identified 5 Bases of Power- (Legitimate Power, Reward Power, Referent Power, Expert Power, Coercive Power) These factors are said to provide a better explanation for Milgram’s findings.

Answer 35

Latane, 1981

Answer 36

The target refers to the person being (socially) impacted on, and the source being the influencer

Answer 37

The degree of social impact on a target depends on: 1. Strength of the Source: determined by how much power, status or authority the target perceive the source to have 2. Immediacy of the Source: the proximity/distance between the source and the target, presence of barriers between the source + target, and how recent the event occurred 3. Number of Sources: how many sources are exerting influence on the target

Answer 38

The greatest social impact occurs when there is a multiplication of all 3 factors i = f (SIN)

Answer 39

The multiplication effect declines in certain social situations, due to 'social laws' e. g. 1: Social Impact will be less when the target is part of a large group, as the impact of the source will be divided between the group e. g. 2: Although an increase in sources will result in an increases of obedience, the increase in obedience is not proportional (e.g. the 33rd source entering the room won't cause 33x anxiety levels than 1 source.)

Answer 40

Milgram's Studies: In his original study 65% gave 450v, which dropped to 22.5% in the telephonic conditions. This is due to the low proximity. Practical Application: It can be used by leaders in society to ensure they achieve high levels of obedience- two leaders need to work together to talk to individuals in small groups (social engineering) Complexity: It is a more complex explanation of how obedience works compared to agency theory, as it refers to status, proximity and number of authority figures. Agency theory only discusses status.

Answer 41

Reductionism: It oversimplifies the interaction between individuals- the 'target' is not always a passive receiver of command; and the 'source' may change their commands due to target influence. Individual Differences: some 'targets' may have an authoritarian personality, making them more submissive to authority by harsh to those more subordinate It explains how people are influenced, but not why. Agency theory explains why, saying its due to socialisation.

Answer 42

To investigate relations between groups: To see whether strangers who have common goals will form a close group. To see whether 2 groups that compete with each other will become hostile towards each other.

Answer 43

For 1 week, the two groups were kept apart and allowed to form group norms + identities Boys developed an attachment to the group throughout the first week of the camp, by doing various activities together (hiking, swimming, etc) The boys chose names for their groups- The Eagles + The Rattlers- and stencilled them onto shirts + flags

Answer 44

The boys were told about another. They went through a tournament of a series of competitions; where the winner get trophies, medals, and camping knives The researchers recorded phrases used by the boys, and analysed if they're derogatory A bean counting competition was included-boys had to then estimate how many each found; which was to see if they'd overestimate the in group/ underestimate the out group

Answer 45

To achieve harmony within the group, the boys started doing tasks that brought them all together Examples: Fixing a water tank, pulling a broken truck out of mud Data was collected through the observation of the boys' friendship, an analysis of friendship, through the experiments and tape recordings.

Answer 46

The boys bonded with their groups and both groups had a recognised leader. They discussed the existence of the other group in negative terms e.g. ‘they had better not be in our swimming hole’.

Answer 47

Towards the end of stage one, the groups began to become competitive and prejudice became apparent between the two groups At first this was only verbally expressed but as the competition wore on this expression took a more direct route The Eagles refused to sit with the Rattlers, the Eagles burned and Rattlers flag. The next day the Rattlers ransacked the Eagles cabin overturned beds and stole private property

Answer 48

The hostility between the groups initially remained, but the problem solving problems began to reduce the hostility towards each other. When they fixed the water tank they celebrated together, and there was cooperation by all the boys contributing the same amount to hire a film For tasks helped to reduce friction and by the end of the stage, although friendship choices still favoured the in-groups, there was increased friendships between the groups The Rattlers even spent a $5 prize from one of the competitions on drinks for all of the boys

Answer 49

Groups bonded and developed hierarchies within them, as expected When the groups met in competition, in-group solidarity and cooperation increased, and hostility towards the other group was strong Contact between the two groups was not enough to reduce hostility, and friction was reduced by the groups having to solve problems together and cooperate

Answer 50

Reliability: all boys experienced the same team-building and competitive activities in three stages – standardised Ecological Validity: The boys behaviour was tested on summer camp at the Robbers Cave National Park, Oklahoma - natural environment Internal Validity: The ppts were all very similar, meaning participant characteristics couldn't affect results The covert observations mean that the researchers (initially) weren't going to affect their behaviour Practical Application

Answer 51

Generalisability: The participants were twenty two 11 and 12 year old boys who are all athletic/sporty, and are white American Protestants Ecological Validity: The procedure involved strangers meeting and competing, which is artificial as usually people in competition have a history of social interaction Internal Validity: The naturalistic environment meant that the researchers couldn't really control extraneous and confounding variables Internal Validity/Mundane Realism: Unpublished researcher notes and interviews many years later revealed that the boys were aware that behaviour was being recorded, and the researcher may have encouraged hostility between the boys by breaking down tents and blaming rival teams – demand characteristics

Answer 52

Protection From Harm: They were given pen knives as prizes, allowed to set fire to flags Sherif encouraged high levels of conflict in order to gain successful study outcomes Deception: The boys believed it was a study of leadership, rather than hostility

Answer 53

Robber's Cave State Park, Oklahoma | it occurred during the boys' summer camp

Answer 54

Sherif, 1966

Answer 55

Sherif claimed that prejudice arises when there is conflict between groups. The conflict can be a conflict of interest (e.g. both groups believe their ideas are right and the others wrong) or 'inter-group conflict'

Answer 56

Competition for resources (e.g. both groups want the same land or the same jobs). He called this ‘inter group conflict’.

Answer 57

When conflict or competition is present, the groups form stronger identities and these result in extreme in-group favouritism and out group hostility. In-group favouritism may be shown through overly generous distribution of resources in favour of the in-group. Out-group hostility may be shown through withholding resources from the out group (discrimination) and even violence against members of the out group.

Answer 58

However, Sherif believed that hostility is reduced when the groups have a common goal and work together to achieve that goal. He called this a ‘superordinate goal’ and claimed it would only reduce prejudice if all members of each group co-operated in order to achieve the intended outcome.

Answer 59

Sherif carried out a number of summer camp studies to show how quickly prejudice and discrimination occurs when groups of boys are in competition with one another. His studies also showed how common goals (superordinate goals) could help to reduce prejudice and discrimination.

Answer 60

Carol + Ember Sherif + Ecological Validity Aronson et al Practical Application Complexity Real life example

Answer 61

Carol + Ember: observed that in tribal societies, intergroup hostility increases when social or natural conditions mean that competition for these resources are necessary. during periods of famine/natural disasters, warfare was more likely to the available, scarce resources. Similar studies have suggested that when population is low and land abundant, hostilities between small societies are less likely; but when populations expand and land becomes in short supply, conflict + violence increase.

Answer 62

Sherif: The greatest amount of evidence comes from Sherif's field experiments (inc. Robber's Cave); which found that competition increased hostility between the groups. Ecological Validity: These are seen as important 'real-life' evidence for prejudice/

Answer 63

Using the 'jigsaw technique', where students were divided into small groups that had to succeed in one group task to ensure the success overall class project; they found that levels of competition decreased.

Answer 64

Realistic Conflict Theory can be used in schools to reduce prejudice; by joining 2 'opposing groups' together to work on a problem solving task; or through the 'jigsaw technique'

Answer 65

The theory provides a more complex explanation of how prejudice works in comparison to individual personality explanation. It explains how prejudice is not fixed or unchangeable but can be reduced through social intervention (e.g. jigsaw technique).

Answer 66

The Tutsi tribe settled peacefully and intermarried in Rwanda, until political rivalry between the groups caused the mass genocide of almost 1 million Tutsi's.

Answer 67

Carol + Ember Tafjel + Turner Credibility Individual Differences

Answer 68

Their correlative evidence does not mean we can confidently establish that competition is responsible or prejudice, there may be other factors involved

Answer 69

Tajfel and Turner conducted a series of laboratory experiments with teenage boys. They found high levels of in-group favouritism and high levels of out-group discrimination, even when there was nothing to gain (no competition for resources). This suggests ‘Social Identity Theory’ may provide a better explanation of prejudice.

Answer 70

In-group favouritism, out-group hostility and superordinate goals can't be scientifically measured; making it not credible.

Answer 71

The theory doesn’t take individual differences into account when explaining prejudice. For example, it doesn’t explain why some people show more hostility than others. This may be due to an authoritarian personality

Answer 72

Reductionism: Sherif did consider the interconnection of psychology + sociology within the theory, reducing reductionism and making it more holistic Developmental Psychology: Adorno and his collegues thought that the authoritarian personality was developed in childhood. Harsh parenting used to ensure obedience leads to a love-hate relationship between a child and its parents. The hate and resentment towards a parent is repressed and displaced onto weaker members of society, while they maintain respect for authority. This theory is a developmental account for both obedience and prejudice.

Answer 73

Tafjel and Turner, 1979

Answer 74

Tajfel and Turner claimed it is simply the presence (or perceived presence) of another group that can lead to prejudice. They believed that group membership alone, even in the absence of competition, can cause prejudice.

Answer 75

1. Social Catergorisation 2. Social Identification 3. Social Comparison

Answer 76

We categorise people (including ourselves) into groups which are predetermined in society e.g. gender /race /religion /hobbies. These categories are very distinct and obvious to spot.

Answer 77

We identify with one of the groups and begin to act like we are expected to as part of the group (in group). Their personal identity is bound up with their social identity For example we may pray like our religion dictates. We may display gender typical behaviour such as wearing feminine colours like pink and purple or masculine colours like blue and black.

Answer 78

We compare our ‘in- group’ with the other ‘out-groups’ and become prejudice towards them in order to feel good about ourselves (high self-esteem)/our group. We might say good things about our in group and bad things about the other out group

Answer 79

Tafjel + Turner Jane Elliot Cialdini Ecological Validity Tafjel + Turner eval Cultural Differences Individual Differences

Answer 80

Tajfel and Turner (1971) conducted a series of ‘minimal group’ laboratory experiments with teenage boys. They found high levels of in-group favouritism and high levels of out-group discrimination even when there was nothing to gain (no competition for resources). However, he study lacks ecological validity.

Answer 81

Research by Jane Elliott (Blue Eyes, Brown Eyes) found that social categorisation (based on eye colour) can quickly lead to prejudice within the classroom. She found that prejudice lead to higher self-esteem of the dominant group (e.g. higher academic performance).

Answer 82

Research by Cialdini has also shown that self esteem is linked to prejudice. He found that when university students' football team won a game, they referred to the team as 'us', and 'they' when they lost. Also, the uni student were more likely to war the football team sweatshirt after a game was won rather than lost

Answer 83

This is strong evidence to support Social Identity Theory as it is ecologically valid due to group membership (football fans) and behaviour (wearing football shirt) occurring naturally

Answer 84

There is research evidence to suggest that some cultures may not have such a strong tendency to favour the in-group and discriminate against the out-group. For example, a study of New Zealand Polynesians showed that they were much more likely to favour the out-group than show bias towards their own in-group. Cultures that emphasise collectivism + cooperation are less likely to demonstrate such group prejudice

Answer 85

The theory doesn’t take individual differences into account when explaining prejudice. For example, it doesn’t explain why some people show more hostility than others. Some psychologists argue that it is the individual characteristics that create a social identity, not a social identity that determines individual characteristics (Postmes et al).

Answer 86

Humans continually strive to achieve a positive self-image, so that they look good in the eyes of others and achieve high personal self-esteem. This self-image forms an individual's personal identity.

Answer 87

Humans inevitably distinguish themselves by membership to certain social groups. This is known as social identity.

Answer 88

The authoritarian personality possessed specific characteristics that meant they were more likely to be hostile to people of a different race, social group, age, sexuality or other minority group.

Answer 89

Initially, they interviewed 2 American college students (Mick + Larry) about their political beliefs, their upbringing, and attitudes to minorities. This helped them design a series of questionnaires (scales) that would measure the authoritarian personality.

Answer 90

Measure authoritarian personality.

Answer 91

1. Anti-Semitism Scale 2. Ethnocentrism Scale (belief that one's own ethnic group is superior to another) 3. Conservatism Scale (a belief in tradition and social order with a dislike for change) 4. F-Scale (fascism scale, used to measure anti-democratic beliefs)

Answer 92

Adorno et al reported 80 interviews (40m, 40f) covering information about background, beliefs, feelings towards others, and religious + political ideology. This information, the questionnaire data, clinical interview with Mark + Larry, and Thematic Apperception Tests were amassed to produce their theory of prejudice.

Answer 93

Where individual are shown abstract images (inkblots) to interpret in an attempt to uncover motivations + attitudes towards a particular subject.

Answer 94

They are hostile to people they see as inferior to themselves, particularly minority groups or people described as out-groups. They are hostile, rigid in thinking and intolerant to change. They are very likely to be conventional in their attitudes and conform to wider social group norms. They are submissive to authority and obedient to those in positions of power.

Answer 95

While the personality seems credible, and explains individual differences in people like bullies or those with extreme political ideas; it doesn't validly explain wide-Scale prejudice (e.g. What Jews experienced during The Holocaust)

Answer 96

Individualistic cultures tend to emphasise individuals in the group as important; encouraging more interpersonal prejudice Collectivistic cultures emphasise the whole group as important: encouraging intergroup prejudice

Answer 97

Al-Zahrani + Kaplowitz: In cultural comparison of Saudi (collectivist) and American (individualist) people - found Saudis to self-report more in-group favouritism and negative out-group bias. Kleugel: Found that collectivism is associated with greater tolerance and lower racism Conflicting results do not support the idea that one type of culture is more prejudiced than the other

Answer 98

Often having experienced strict and unaffectionate parenting, they frequently project their anger and aggression on to others; representing how they had to be respectful to their parents, and cruel to those weaker to them.

Answer 99

In an investigation researchers are trying to find out about a certain group of people, this could be for example, human beings in general (Milgram). This is called the target population

Answer 100

It is impossible to interview or test every single person in that population, so they have to select a group of people that represent that population. This is called the sample or participants.

Answer 101

It is important that the sample is similar in characteristics to the target population so that sample is representative. This means the findings are generalisable.

Answer 102

This technique uses people from target population available at the time and willing to take part. It is based on convenience. The researcher will stand in a particular location and recruit participants as they pass. The people who agree become their sample, and they wait until they have sufficient participants.

Answer 103

Yes They just find the closest people who will agree to do it, and no planning is involved.

Answer 104

To an extent They don't all share similar characteristics, like how volunteer samples would (for example)

Answer 105

No, but they're likely to drop out Since participants have been selected rather than sign up they may not have an interest in completing research so they may drop out part of the way through the study causing issues with the results

Answer 106

Yes, they will obtain enough ppts Practical as provided the researcher stands in a busy place they should find sufficient participants to take part and they can remain there until they do.

Answer 107

Volunteer Sampling

Answer 108

Participants become part of a study because they volunteer when asked by the researcher. The researcher may place an advert in a newspaper or magazine explaining the research. The researcher will wait for people to contact them via phone/ email. Once a sufficient number have contacted them they have the sample for their research.

Answer 109

No They have to wait until a sufficient amount of people agree to do the study

Answer 110

No May lead to an unrepresentative sample as participants are likely to be keen and perhaps interested in the topic since they have volunteered and might not be representative of society.

Answer 111

Yes Participants may be very keen since they have volunteered making demand characteristics more likely since they are more motivated to work out the aim of research and perhaps altered their behaviour.

Answer 112

Maybe They are likely to obtain enough participants, but it may be difficult in some cases.

Answer 113

In this technique, everyone in the entire target population has an equal chance of being selected. A random number generator from a computer programme can be used to select participants from a list. A sampling frame / list of the population is needed for example the electoral role.

Answer 114

Yes Fairly quick and easy as the researcher simply needs a sampling frame such as the electoral role and they can select participants. These resources are readily available and little planning is needed

Answer 115

Should be representative as the laws of probability dictate the sample should be roughly similar to the population in terms of gender, age, ethnicity.

Answer 116

Since participants have been selected rather than sign up they may not have an interest in completing research so they may drop out part of the way through the study causing issues with the results

Answer 117

Practical as if those chosen do not respond then they can use the random name generator to select a new participant until they have enough.

Answer 118

In this technique the researcher identifies the different types of people that make up the target population, for example make / female, young old (relevant characteristics chosen). Then they work out the proportions needed for the sample to be representative for example, 50% male and 50% female. They use a random number generator from a computer programme to select people from a sampling frame / list e.g. the electoral role. They select their sample using the results of this, ensuring they have the right proportions of everyone

Answer 119

No Time consuming as the researcher must work out the characteristics of the population and then select an appropriate sample so planning is involved. This might be a long process as particular genders / ages / ethnicities might be difficult to find.

Answer 120

Yes They highly represent the demographics of the total population.

Answer 121

No, but they may drop out Since participants have been selected rather than sign up they may not have an interest in completing research so they may drop out part of the way through the study causing issues with the results

Answer 122

No It may be difficult to obtain a sufficient number of participants with the appropriate characteristics who agree to take part in the research, making this method impractical

Answer 123

Structured Interview Semi-Structured Interview Unstructured Interview

Answer 124

Researcher uses a list of previously planned questions in a set order. Often these have a list of tick box answers to choose from, however they can include open questions The interview may be recorded on videotape, audiotape or written down. The experimenter cannot add any more questions once in the interview. The experimenter cannot change the wording of the question if the interviewee does not understand.

Answer 125

Quantitative (sometimes qualitative)

Answer 126

Yes Has good reliability as if repeated, exactly the same questions can be asked Has good inter-rater reliability as researchers will use the same questions leading to consistency in results

Answer 127

No May lack validity as it is difficult for the researcher to build a rapport (relationship) therefore the participant may not relax and give truthful information.

Answer 128

Yes Allows for objective quantitative data when analysed. Researchers opinion cannot affect interpretation of tick box answers

Answer 129

A semi-structured interview is where there might be some preset questions that the interviewer asks and interviewee answers. The interviewer can deviate from those questions and make some up if they want. The interviewer can change the wording of the question if the interviewee does not understand. The interview might be recorded on video tape, audio tape or the answers may be written down.

Answer 130

Uses a mixture

Answer 131

No Has poor test-retest reliability as if repeated, questions will vary slightly Has poor inter-rater reliability as researchers will use different questions leading to inconsistency in results

Answer 132

Yes Good validity as the researcher can build a rapport (relationship) therefore the participant will relax and give truthful information.

Answer 133

No The answers to some questions may be subjective to interpret. The researchers' opinion may affect how they view the meaning.

Answer 134

An unstructured interview is when there are no preset questions ready prepared for the interviewer to ask. The interviewer will have a topic which they want the interviewee to talk about but the questions will be made up as they go along. The interviewer can change the wording of the questions if the interviewee does not understand. The interviewer will ask new questions depending on what the interviewee says and what is considered interesting. An unstructured interview is similar to an informal conversation

Answer 135

Qualitative data.

Answer 136

No Has poor test-retest reliability as if repeated, questions will vary slightly Has poor inter-rater reliability, as researchers will use different questions leading to inconsistency in results

Answer 137

Yes Good validity as the researcher can build rapport (relationship). Therefore the participant will relax and give truthful information.

Answer 138

No Highly subjective to interpret the answers to questions. Also the researcher can affect the results by asking biased questions.

Answer 139

Questionnaires involve asking people questions about a specific topic (usually on paper). Questions must be related to a specific aim/hypothesis – ethically, a researcher should not ask for unnecessary information. There are a number of formats for asking questions

Answer 140

Quick method for gathering a large amount of data – once the researcher has written the questionnaire, it can be given to large sample very quickly. Very reliable method as questions are listed in a fixed order and with exactly the same wording for each participant.

Answer 141

Time consuming to write as the order and wording of the questions needs to be planned carefully in order to avoid researcher bias (e.g. leading questions). Socially desirable answers are common as people want to present themselves in a favourable way – produces invalid results. Difficult to obtain a 100% response rate as participants may not return the questionnaire or not bother answering some questions.

Answer 142

Closed questions provide participants with a number of options and asks them to choose one that represents their view.

Answer 143

Likert scale A rating scale Identifying characteristics

Answer 144

A Likert scale provides a statement to which participants Rate their opinion (such as 5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = neutral , 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree or 5= very likely/ 1= very unlikely).

Answer 145

Asks participants to rate themselves on a specific scale e.g. 1-10.

Answer 146

Provides participants with a number of personal characteristics and asks them to circle one that represents their view.

Answer 147

Answers are reliable – i.e. replies are easy to compare and can be compared in the same way by different researchers. The researcher can be objective i.e. analyse participants answers without using their own judgement or interpretations .

Answer 148

Can lead to invalid answers as the participant is forced to choose one of the stated options. They may have wanted to provide a different answer. Can be time consuming for the researcher to write as a range of closed options should be provided. This requires some research and understanding of the most common responses.

Answer 149

Provides with the space to write their own answer to a question – no options are provided.

Answer 150

Answers are valid as participants are free to answer as they wish and may write in depth about their behaviour. Participants may give unique answers that the researcher wouldn’t have included in closed

Answer 151

Participants may misunderstand the question and provide an invalid answer The researcher has to be subjective i.e. use their own judgement or interpretation to analyse participants answers.

Answer 152

Straight forward questions should be stated at the beginning to encourage participants to answer. Questions about personal details (age/gender/ethnicity) should be stated at the end so as not to bore the participants. Questions should be varied so as to avoid response bias (the tendency of the participant to stick to one response throughout their answer). A pilot survey should be carried out before the main research to check the questions are worded clearly, and that the answers given are relevant to the researchers

Answer 153

Quantitative data refers to information in a numerical or statistical form. It is data that is more likely to be drawn from controlled situations such as laboratory experiments. It deals with ‘what’ rather than ‘why’ in research. For example the percentage of people that obeyed Milgram and administered electric shocks is quantitative data.

Answer 154

Quantitative data could include descriptive statistics involving central tendency – mean/median/mode. Or it could include data that has been represented using graphs/pie charts so that comparison can be drawn.

Answer 155

Qualitative data refers to information regarding information written in detailed description, words or even images. Qualitative data deals with “why” rather than “what” in research. For example, Milgram interviewed his participants to find out why they went so far on the shock generator (this was qualitative data).

Answer 156

This might include information gathered from open questions from interviews or questionnaires, or from case studies or research in real world settings. Qualitative data includes information that will need to be assessed for themes. These themes will then be used to make conclusions of the findings of the psychological topic.

Answer 157

Qualitative: It is Subjective as it has to be analysed for themes and different researchers may give different interpretations Quantitative: It is Objective as researchers can't have personal interpretations of numerical data

Answer 158

Qualitative: Doesn't use operationalised variables, and so it's harder to replicate and check for reliability Quantitative: uses operationalised variables making it easier to replicate the study and thus check for reliability

Answer 159

Qualitative: May produce more rich detailed type of information with access to emotions and feelings behind behaviour making it more valid Are conducted in more natural circumstances tend to produce more ecologically valid data as they are real life situations Quantitative: May produce limited information with low/no access to emotions and feelings behind behaviour, making it less valid Quantitative data may produce narrow, unrealistic information which only focuses on small fragments of behaviour and therefore is not valid

Answer 160

Does not allow for easy comparisons as each participant will have very individual data.

Answer 161

Quantitative data gives statistical data which can be further tested to see how far the results are due to chance using inferential statistics It can also be easily represented in graphs and charts for easier analysis and comparisons than qualitative data

Answer 162

Recording themes, patterns or trends within data

Answer 163

Inductive approach | Deductive approach

Answer 164

The researcher would read and reread the qualitative data gathered, and themes would emerge from the data without the researcher imposing any of their own ideas/expectations from it.

Answer 165

The researcher specifies themes that they will look for before analysing the data

Answer 166

It involves carefully reading + considering the qualitative data gathered, and identifying the themes present in the data that occur frequently or seem to be a key feature of the data. How frequent/central to the text the theme is depends on the opinion of the researcher, and the nature of the material analysed. The researcher then develops these themes to 'codes' which represent the categories of themes found. The research will then use these codes to analyse the data gathered and search for instances where it appears in the data. This is reviewed continually, and changed if necessary, until the themes can be stated, supported and used as a summary of the data.

Answer 167

Using thematic analysis or other forms of qualitative analysis is often seen as unscientific, as the themes are highly dependent on subjective opinions

Answer 168

Qualitative analysis does yield far more detailed + meaningful information than quantitative data

Answer 169

How can social psychology be used to explain Heroism?

Answer 170

Heroism is an act of bravery; where someone places themselves at risk for the sake of another person. Zimbardo claims heroism has four key elements:

Answer 171

It is voluntary It is done to help someone or a community in need It involves some type of risk - physical, mental, and sometimes death It is done without the need for any kind of compensation

Answer 172

During Hitler's reign in Nazi Germany, many individuals risked their own lives and allowed Jewish families to hide from the Nazi authorities in hidden parts of their homes E.g. Miep Gies who hid Anne Frank, her family and four other Jews in an annex during WWII

Answer 173

Some evidence suggests naturally high levels of oxytocin (the "love hormone") could make people more likely to be a hero. According to Zimbardo: more highly educated people, people who have done volunteer work, people of African origin and those who have survived a disaster/personal trauma are more likely to be a hero. Men are more likely to report performing acts of heroism (but this could be due to women not feeling the acts of heroism as heroic, but more as a duty) Zimbardo argues we all have the potential to be heroes, but it depends on our circumstances

Answer 174

Zimbardo claims that social forces make it difficult for people to be heroes, which is a problem as heroes are needed in times of crisis, which can affect an individual or a whole society There is a tendency in all humans to be obedient to authority and accept the prejudiced attitudes within our social groups, rather than challenge the status quo; and this can lead to the suffering of individuals and minority groups Individuals in crisis might not receive help when they need it – e.g. a homeless person begging for money on the streets may not be given any money/food/offers It can also lead the whole group is not receiving help when they need it – e.g. Syrian refugees who are in desperate need of housing, clothes, food and clean water In Nazi Germany, when Jews, homosexuals and people with disabilities were being exterminated in concentration camps, the majority of society did not stand up for them. The lack of heroism allowed the killing to continue Zimbardo argues that society needs to be educated about the social forces which allow evil + injustice to continue. He has set up the Heroic imagination project (HIP)?in order to teach individuals about these negative social forces, and to consider alternative behaviour that could lead to positive social action

Answer 175

Milgram found that 65% of ppts followed orders to give what they believed was a fatal electric shock (450v), due to the fact that they were following orders; showing social forces such as obedience to authority make it difficult to be heroic E: All of Milgram's ppts were volunteers, and therefore more likely to be keen individuals who want to please the experiment and follow orders E: Some ppts did refuse to obey, showing individual differences such as having a low authoritarian personality might make some people are more likely to be heroes

Answer 176

Agency theory suggests that humans have evolved to be obedient in order for society to run smoothly, and this means if a hateful and violent person becomes a president/Prime Minister/leader, people follow their orders to commit harm, rather than challenging them and becoming a hero This is supported by Burger who found that ppts in modern society showed a similar level of obedience using Milgram's electrocution procedure. Therefore agency theory might be a good explanation for why people find it difficult to be heroic E: Burgers conclusion may be invalid, since he stopped the experiment at 150 V. It is possible that more participants would have refused to continue, and therefore acted as heroes if they got the chance

Answer 177

Social identity theory claims humans have a tendency to show in-group favouritism and out-group prejudice, due to the need to protect their self-esteem in group situations. This shows people might find it difficult to be heroic if this involves helping someone from a different social group from them (e.g. different race or religion) Tafjel's research supports this, as boys were more likely to show favouritism to their in-group and reward them more money in an experiment, even though this did not benefit them. E: However, Tafjel's research use young boys who do not represent society, and might be more likely to favour their in-group than older people

Answer 178

Realistic conflict theory claims humans have a tendency to be prejudiced towards another group, due to a conflict of interests or competition for resources. Therefore heroism might be difficult when there are limited resources society and people feel like they are competing for them Sherif's research supports realistic conflict theory; and supports the idea that competition can make heroism difficult when people feel like they are in competition with one another E: Sherif's research lacks internal validity, as it was revealed many years later that the boys were aware their behaviour was being recorded and the researchers may have encouraged hostility

Answer 179

Psychology can help us to understand that social forces make it difficult for humans to be heroes because we all have the tendency to be obedient to authority figures and prejudiced towards others. This can stop us from helping others in need Zimbardo is using this psychological knowledge to try to educate people and help them to consider positive social action. However it is too early to know what impact this education may have on acts of heroism It may also be the case that humans are influenced by individual personality factors, and these are much harder to change

Answer 180

To investigate perceptions of gender differences in obedience

Answer 181

Is there a Difference in Percieved Levels of Obedience in Males and Females?

Answer 182

IV: Sex (male / female) Operationalised through choosing males and females DV: Perceived Obedience Operationalised through scores in the questionnaire- A high level score = high level of perceived obedience

Answer 183

Directional: There will be a difference in perceived levels of obedience between men + women Null: There will not be a difference in perceived levels of obedience between men + women. Any difference will be due to chance.

Answer 184

Stratified Sample This will be used because this ensures an equal amount of males and females

Answer 185

Psychological Harm: We will not ask ppts any personal questions. Also, the questionnaires + responses will be destroyed. Competence: We have studied obedience, and have carried out similar practicals. Confidentiality: The questionnaires kept anonymity, and we let them know they didn't have to give their name Withdrawal: We informed them about their right to withdraw in the brief Informed Consent: We asked for their informed consent during the brief Deception: The aim was available for the participants to see Debriefing: The ppts were informed that their findings and the full write up would be available to them, and accessible upon request. This was discussed in the brief

Answer 186

I wanted to collect both qual + quan data so I could make comparisons between males and females. I wanted to include a mixture of closed + open questions, so data can be collected using measures of central tendency /dispersion; as well as giving a thematic analysis To avoid demand characteristics, the full aim will not be explained to ppts, until the full debrief at the end To keep experimenter bias to a minimum, the same tone + pace was used when giving instructions and debriefing

Answer 187

The same standardised instructions + procedure used with all ppts There will be Question Reversal - Some of the questions are rephrased to reverse emphasis of the higher the score, the greater perception of obedience

Answer 188

A questionnaire

Answer 189

I decided on a topic area that I wanted to study. I chose perceived obedience between males + females, as they were easily accessible and these groups were clearly identifiable. I chose to use a questionnaire rather than an interview because this was less time consuming I brainstormed some questions that would result in qualitative + quantitative data ad conducted a pilot study I adapted some questions and then wrote the full questionnaire I decided on ___ closed Qs so I could find a mean obedience score between males and females, and __ open Qs to provide qualitative information

Answer 190

I found the ppts through stratified sampling, as it ensured a mixture of males + females I handed them the questionnaire, and waited for them to complete it I debriefed the ppts verbally

Answer 191

After the questionnaires had been finished we added up the perceived obedience scores for closed questions between males and females I analysed the measures of central tendency for the perceived obedience scores for the different categories I drew a graph and explained the results I looked for themes in the qualitative data, and wrote a report I drew conclusions in relation to the hypothesis I rejected/accepted the alternative hypothesis

Answer 192

The results suggest hat society perceives females to be more obedient than males Consistent measures of central tendency suggest this may be due to the fact that women may be 'viewed as weaker'

Answer 193

From any results I can conclude that females' perceived levels of obedience is higher than males' levels of perceived obedience, as shown in the bar graph. Evidence to support this is from the themes, whereby due to gender stereotypes females perceived levels of obedience is higher – for example, "Women are viewed as the weaker gender" Therefore, we can accept our alternative hypothesis as female perceived levels of obedience will be higher, because of stereotypes

Answer 194

G: There were 21 ppts, consisting of males + females R: there was a strict standardised procedure whereby the questionnaire was designed and distributed to find out perceptions of male + female obedience, and this can be repeated A: The findings suggest that females are perceived to be more obedient than males. It could be suggested that women might need more assertiveness training, because if they order to do something on ethical they may be when they should in fact dissent I.V: Five questions way yes/no questions, and two were like likert scale questions. Therefore the answers or objective for the researcher to interpret and tally

Answer 195

G: All ppts were students, which doesn't reflect all of society I.V: three questions were open questions, which are subjective to interpret Ethics: The aim was only told after the experiment was finished, meaning we couldn't gain full informed consent

Answer 196

Practical Application: Governments could use the idea that a common goal reduces hostility between groups, to try to reduce prejudice in society Practical Application: The study explains why hostility between groups in society increases when there is economic recession, and people compete for scarce resources (e.g. if white people say that black people/ immigrants are stealing jobs)