Learning Flashcards

Question

Was the Little Albert study Internally Valid?

Answer 1

Lab experiment, where variables were controlled; making results internally valid

Answer 2

Lab experiment, where things aren’t natural (aren’t presented with object and strategically give the UCS of steel bar), possibly unnatural behaviour; limiting ecological validity

Answer 3

Protection from Harm (they inflicted fear) Right to Withdraw (a 9 month old can't discuss this) Informed Consent (a 9 month old can't consent) Deception (the mother said she never knew what was going on) Debriefing (the mother took Albert away before they could debrief)

Answer 4

Instrumental Learning: The term Edward Thorndike originally gave to the form of learning where the consequences of the behaviour dictates the further repeating of it.

Answer 5

The idea that a response followed by a pleasant consequence is repeated; and one with a negative effect tends not to repeated, or it withdrew

Answer 6

Trying to reduce a certain (usually negative) behaviour

Answer 7

Trying to increase a certain (usually positive) behaviour

Answer 8

Antecedant: A stimulus that triggers a behaviour Behaviour: An observable response as an outcome of the antecedant Consequence: The reward/punishment following the behaviour

Answer 9

Adding an unpleasant stimulus that will reduce the showing of a behaviour

Answer 10

The removal of a desirable stimulus to reduce the showing of a behaviour.

Answer 11

The removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the showing of a behaviour.

Answer 12

Adding a desirable stimulus that will increase the showing of a behaviour

Answer 13

Skinner started his research in the 1930, using lab experiments with his 'Skinner Box' A Skinner Box was essentially a box that could dispense food and electric shocks to animals such as rats and pigeons.

Answer 14

If the rat/pigeon was given something pleasurable (food) following a desired behaviour (lever pressing) they are more likely to repeat this behaviour in the future.

Answer 15

If a rat/pigeon is given an electric shock until a lever is pressed, they are more likely to press the lever again to avoid electric shocks in the future.

Answer 16

If a rat presses a lever and is given an electric shock, it will stop pressing the lever to make sure it does not get another electric shock in the future.

Answer 17

Using rewards that satisfy basic human survival needs, to increase the frequency of a behaviour.

Answer 18

Using rewards that are desired because they can be used to obtain primary reinforcers, to increase the frequency of a behaviour.

Answer 19

People are given worthless tokens (secondary reinforcers) when they carry out desirable behaviour. These tokens can be exchange for meaningful rewards (primary reinforcers) such as food, leisure time, visitors rights, etc. These are used in prisons, schools and sometimes with mental health patients.

Answer 20

(Social Control) Some question whether it's morally acceptable to manipulate the patients in this way: Some argue that TEPs exist to benefit the staff looking after the patients by making them easier to control, as opposed to actually helping the patients.

Answer 21

When a behaviour is reinforced every time it is seen. This schedule is best used during the early stages of learning, in order to create a strong link between the behaviour and response

Answer 22

When a behaviour is reinforced in some of the occasions it is seen. Learned behaviours are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction (dying out)

Answer 23

Where the first response is rewarded, only after a specific amount of time has passed.

Answer 24

When a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed

Answer 25

Where a response is rewarded, after a specific number of resources.

Answer 26

A response is rewarded after a number of resources. For the next reward, the number of responses is different.

Answer 27

``` Good Water Shelter Emotional satisfaction (love, care, etc) Sex ```

Answer 28

``` Money Stickers (from teachers) Merits (from teachers) Tokens (e.g. in prisons) Grades in school ```

Answer 29

Continuous Reinforcement Partial Reinforcement

Answer 30

Fixed Interval Variable Interval Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio

Answer 31

Learning behaviour takes longer Causes high amounts of responding near the end of the Interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer (e.g. with employees and wages)

Answer 32

The rate of response is relatively slow, but steady Very resistant to extinction (dying out)

Answer 33

Produces a high, steady rate of responding, with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer

Answer 34

Creates a high, steady rate of responding

Answer 35

Fixed Interval: The rat gets a food pellet for pressing the lever, but only after a 30 second delay Variable Interval: The rat gets its first food pellet for pressing the lever after a 30s delay, then 12s, then 25s, etc. Fixed Ratio: The rat gets a pellet after pressing the lever every 8 times Variable Ratio: The rat gets a food pelle after pressing the lever 8 times, then 4, then 7, etc

Answer 36

Observation (learning new behaviours through watching others) Imitation (copying the behaviour that's been observed) Modelling (Observation and imitation combined)

Answer 37

Vicarious Reinforcement Identification

Answer 38

When a person sees the consequence of someone’s behaviour, and thus copies that behaviour to get the same reward

Answer 39

When a person wants to be like their role model; and so they take on many aspect of that person (e.g values, beliefs + attitudes), and therefore their behaviour. This is more likely to happen when the role model is the same sex as the observer, and inspires admiration due to high status/ power.

Answer 40

Attention Retention Reproduction

Answer 41

Selectively focusing on/ paying attention to specific information

Answer 42

How distinctive/ unusual the behaviour is How alert/ awake the observer is The characteristics of the role model (e.g. age + gender)

Answer 43

Remembering the behaviour observed This may be in the form of Mental Images, or Verbal Description

Answer 44

Carrying out the Observed Behaviour at a Later Time They must have the Physical capabilities to Carry it Out

Answer 45

A Necessary Condition the Observer Must Have in order for the Other Stages to Take Place

Answer 46

Doing Something because it makes you Feel Good (personal benefits)

Answer 47

Doing Something to get a Physical/ Tangible Reward at the End

Answer 48

An important factor in SLT is Self-Efficacy. Self Efficacy: The belief in one's capabilities to organise and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations. Bandura argued that in addition to requiring a role model in order to imitate behaviour, it's final reproduction relies not just on reward, but the child's Self Confidence and Belief to imitate the behaviour.

Answer 49

SLT is based on lab-based research methods that ensure reliability and allow inferences about a cause + effect relationship to be made. SLT does allow for individual differences, and acknowledges that cognitive + motivational factors can influence behaviour (retention/motivation)

Answer 50

The studies SLT is based on lack ecological validity, as they're in artificial settings

Answer 51

SLT has made a significant contribution to the psychology of aggression + gender development, and has formed the basis for a range of treatments such as phobias: with patients, the role model could be their therapist, or someone they already know

Answer 52

Nature vs Nurture: SLT ignores evolutionary factors and other biological influences on behaviour Deterministic: The approach generally does not acknowledge the influence of free will, making it slightly deterministic. Reductionist: SLT can be accused of reductionism, by breaking down highly complex behaviours to merely observational learning

Answer 53

To investigate whether children exposed to a more aggressive role model would initiate behaviour shown, ans if similar results would occur with a non-aggressive role model To investigate gender, and if one gender would be more susceptible to imitate than the other

Answer 54

72 children (36 boys + 36 girls) Separated into 3 equal groups of 24 1. Aggressive condition 2. Non-aggressive condition 3. Control group The group of 24 had equal amount of males and females (12 each) Out of each 12, 6 saw a male role model, and 6 saw a female. The control group of 24 saw no model

Answer 55

1- Children were brought in a room, shown how to play with various toys 2- An adult model was brought into the room and sat on another table 3- Aggressive Model: The models played with the tinker toys 1 min, then showed physical + verbal aggresion to the Bobo doll 3- Non-Aggressive Model: The model stayed in the corner of the room playing quietly with the tinker toys and ignoring the Bobo doll Control Group: They were left alone with toys, and were observed for 20 mins

Answer 56

Aggressive Model: The children showed a lot more verbal + physical aggression Boys to Aggressive Male Model: 28.5 acts of aggression Boys to Non-Aggressive Male Model: 1.5 acts Boys in Control Group: 2 acts The children in the aggressive condition came up with acts of aggression different to the ones originally presented, and copied the verbal sayings showed by the model The girls spent more time playing with the dolls, whereas the boys spent more time with guns

Answer 57

Children exposed to an aggressive role model were likely to imitate their behaviour Boys were ore susceptible to imitate aggression, and girls verbal aggression Boys were more likely to imitate same sex models than girls

Answer 58

Generalisabiity: The experiment involved a large sample of 72 (m+f) children, assigned to 9 different conditions Reliability: Having children lay with toys after an adult role model showed aggression/non-aggression is standardised Application: The experiment made a huge contribution to understand how children learn to acquire behaviours through observing those around them. Internal Validity: Extraneous variables were controlled, like how the child was in a room by himself with only a toy and an adult model Also, a control group is used

Answer 59

Generalisability: The participants were all ony children Ecological Validity: The study took place in a small lab Accuracy/Reliability: What's seen as aggressive acts are subjective Application: Bandura only only looked at the short term immediate impact of an aggressive role model

Answer 60

Loftus + Weaver (1998) argued that the study was unethical because the children were manipulated to behave aggressively. Agitation and dissatisfaction was shown through the taunts and they were not allowed to play with certain toys, making them upset and thus Bandura didn't protect them from harm

Answer 61

Yes: The experiment made a huge contribution to understand how children learn to acquire behaviours through observing those around them. No: Bandura only only looked at the short term immediate impact of an aggressive role model

Answer 62

To investigate whether children would imitate new verbal + physical behaviour shown by a televised role model To see if children would be more likely to imitate the behaviour if they saw the model receive a reward for heir behaviour (vicarious reinforcement)

Answer 63

66 children (33M + 33F) Split into 3 equal groups (11m+ 11f): Adult model REWARDED for aggression Adult model PUNISHED for aggression Adult Model GETS NOTHING for aggression

Answer 64

Children were brought to a room and told they had to wait there + watch TV They showed a 5 minue programme where a modl showed verbal + physical agggression to a Bobo doll 22 ppts saw the model get rewarded with drinks, sweets + praise 22 ppts saw a different adult punish the model with finger wagging, criticism and getting hit with a newspaper 22 ppts saw the model receive no consequences Their behaviour was observed for 10mins, with the acts being recorded every 5 seconds. The observer didn't know what programme/condition the children got.

Answer 65

Children were more likely to initiate aggressive behaviour if the model was rewarded Boys initiated more violence than girls

Answer 66

Children initiated new verbal + physical behaviour shown by a televised role model Children were more likely to imitate the behaviour if they saw the model receive a reward (vicarious reinforcement)

Answer 67

G: The sample consisted with 66 males and females assigned to 3 different conditions R: Children were shown a 5min programme where a model was aggressive to a Bobo doll and receive a different consequence, which is standardised I.V: The ppts were placed in a room by themselves, and had no extraneous variables to affect the results. I.V: The condition where the model received no consequence was a control group

Answer 68

G: The sample only consisted of children I.V: The results were measured through observations, which isn't necessarily accurate as they don't have any proper numerical data to back it up + allow comparisons E.V: The children was placed in a small room which does not reflect real life behaviour

Answer 69

Behaviour modification is a therapy that has its theoretical basis in operant conditioning, and Skinner's experiments. The ideas behind behaviour modification are to: - extinguish undesirable behaviour (by removing the reinforcer) - replace original behaviour with a desirable behaviour, and reinforce it

Answer 70

In Skinner's system, at the start of a behaviour-shaping exercise, very general desired behaviours are rewarded. Once this behaviour has been shown, the rewards get more selective, so that only behaviours closer to the exact desired behaviour are reinforced. This is in many ways a step-by-step process, gradually getting closer and closer to the desired behavior change.

Answer 71

It can be used as a mode of therapy to treat ADHD, OCD and Autism. The target behaviour is identified, and then rewards are given for behaviours that gradually get closer to the target. e.g. A therapist working with an autistic child may use rewards to reinforce good behaviour, then gradually encourage specific behaviours

Answer 72

A: What was accidentally observed by Pavlov is now a universally accepted principle in psychology; and it remains on of the most important principles in psychology's history. It formed the basis of the behavioural/learning approach Pavlov greatly influenced Watson and Skinner, and continues to inspire psychological research to this day. Between 1997 and 2000, 220+ articles appeared in scientific journals, citing his research on classical conditioning. Concepts can be defined, precisely measured and controlled, as illustrated by Pavlov's lab experiments on animals. As only observable behaviour is measured, it could be argued that this is an objective measure, making it scientific

Answer 73

Operant conditioning can explain a wide assortment of behaviours; from addiction to language acquisition: A substance/activity can become addictive if it is rewarding (pleasurable or enjoyable). If the child says a word correctly, they will receive a reward for that behaviour. This encourages the, to increase that behaviour and say the words right, shaping their language Concepts can be defined, precisely measured and controlled, as illustrated by Skinner's lab experiments on animals. As only observable behaviour is measured, it could be argued that this is an objective measure, making it scientific

Answer 74

Reductionist: All behaviour is reduced to learning through association or reinforcement. Theories greatly underestimate the role of biological factors, including genetic differences plus instincts on behaviour. Skinner's observations only account for observable behaviours, and don't account for any on observable behaviours (e.g. mental and emotional states like anger/happiness) Learning theories often use animal research to prove theories, but this raises the issue of extrapolating findings from animals and applying them to humans. The contrived and artificial nature of such experiments question the ecological validity of the findings, and the extent they can be applied to real life settings The use of lab experiments with animals raises ethical issues. It could be argued that Pavlov's research, for instance, caused unnecessary suffering to the dogs in his experiment

Answer 75

An 'overwhelming and unbearable fear of an object, place situation, feeling or an animal' A phobia is an anxiety disorder, a complex behaviour that when compared to a fear has more far reaching effect on the individual, both emotionally + socially.

Answer 76

Specific Phobia: a phobia of animals Inanimate Phobia: a phobia of non-living objects Illness Phobia: a phobia of illnesses

Answer 77

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Social Learning Theory

Answer 78

When you pair the UCS to the NS, to create a CS and CR. Little Albert is a real life example for classical conditioning + phobias; through a white rat

Answer 79

Not all phobias ca be linked back to a conditioning experience, and some would suggest the notion of classical conditioning in phobias has modest support Kleinknecht studied a group of members of the American Tarantula Society; amongst those reporting to be afraid of tarantulas, no one reported a direct traumatic experience due to classical conditioning

Answer 80

Phobias can be acquired through vicarious reinforcement: A fear can be learned through observing the consequence of someone's behaviour. e.g. If someone gets consolidated and treated well for their fear, they may want that same treatment Phobias can be acquired through observing others' behaviour, through ARRM (the 4 stages) e.g. a little boy may develop a fear of spiders when he sees his family screaming at one

Answer 81

Mineka + Zinbarg They described a case of a boy who developed a significant vomiting phobia after witnessing his grandfather vomiting whilst dying. His phobia was so severe, it caused him to contemplate suicide on one occasion when he felt nauseous + feared being sick.

Answer 82

One way of dealing with a fear is to avoid/escape from situations involving your fear; which removes the unpleasant feelings (negative reinforcement) Phobias are hard to get rid of, as people feel rewarded for not going towards that fear

Answer 83

They would argue that learning theories would argue that phobias are simply the result of maladaptive learning. Therefore to treat it, you simply need to focus on observable behaviour change and the unlearning/deconditioning of the maladaptive behaviour associated with the phobia.

Answer 84

``` Exposure Treatments (based on classical conditioning) Modelling ```

Answer 85

The fundamental idea behind this is that if the scared person sees another person acting in a relaxed + stress-free way around the phobic stimulus, they will vicariously learn that the stimulus won't harm them. e.g. A person with a snake phobia sees another person (e.g. older sibling) interacting happily with it without any fear.

Answer 86

Mary Cover Jones' Little Peter experiment Peter was a 3yo boy afraid of rabbits. Cove Jones treated Peter through direct conditioning + modelling. Each day, Peter and 3 other children were brought to the lab for a play period; where a rabbit was always present. New situations requiring closer contact with the rabbit were gradually introduced. It became apparent the Peter showed progressive improvement from almost complete terror a the sight of the rabbit, to allowing the rabbit to nibble its fingers.

Answer 87

South African psychiatrist Joseph Wolpe

Answer 88

1. Functional Analysis 2. Anxiety Hierarchy 3. Relaxation Training 4. Gradual Exposure to Fear

Answer 89

A conversations between the therapist and client to identify the nature of the anxiety and the possible triggers

Answer 90

The patient and therapist create a hierarchy discussing which is the least and most anxiety provoking It is also at this time where the patient discusses the speed and ‘extremity’ of the desensitisation

Answer 91

The patient is taught different relaxation techniques and breathing exercises (e.g. meditation) which suit them best

Answer 92

The patient gradually goes from the least anxiety provoking to the most anxiety provoking Working through the agreed anxiety heirarchy, the phobic object is lowly and gradually introduced according to the scenarios agreed in the heirarchy. The therapist always works at the speed by the client

Answer 93

In vitro – the client imagines exposure to the phobic stimulus. In vivo – the client is actually exposed to the phobic stimulus. In vivo is known to be the most effective.

Answer 94

Systematic Desensitisation in the Treatment of the Fear of Flying

Answer 95

To validate the effectiveness of systematic desensitisation as a treatment of a fear of flying To assess the therapeutic success of a systematic desensitisation when applied to this specific phobia

Answer 96

Participants were recruited using a media campaign, which informed them of the opportunity to take part in a free intervention programme aimed at treating a fear of flying 41 participants came forward: 20 (8M, 12F) were randomly assigned to the treatment group; 21 (9M, 12F) were the control group.

Answer 97

The IDG-FV and other various diagnostic scales were used to assess their fear of flying. Three key questions in the IDG-FV were allowed measurement before + after treatment Other measures for assessing the dependent variable pre + post treatment were 3 EMV scales: 1. Fear displayed during flight 2. Fear of flight preliminaries (how they felt before getting on the plane) 3. Fear without involvement (e.g. seeing a plane) There were 2 EPAV scales, measuring the outcome of catastrophic thoughts and additional measures of anxiety. They also measured ppts physical arousal (through heart rate, palm temp + muscular tension)

Answer 98

All participants were interviewed individually, and completed the IDG-FV. They later came back to watch a video of a plane trip. Before watching the video, there was a habituation session; where the ppts physics arousal was measured 3 minutes before the video. They were asked to feel as involved as possible The interval for the pre- and post- test sessions was 8 weeks, and for the treatment group this involved 2 weekly 1 hour sessions After 8 weeks, everyone was asked to retake the test.

Answer 99

``` EMV Scale (fear during flight): Treatment group reduced by 12.35, Control group by 0.22 (p<0.001) ``` ``` EPAV Scale (catastrophic thoughts): Treatment group reduced by 5.30, Control group by 0.09 (p<0.01) ``` Physical Arousal: Treatment group reduced by 0.13, Control group gained 0.24 (p<0.01) For the control group, the 'mere passing of time' without treatment didn't lead to a reduction in their fear. However, treatment led to a reduction in all but 2 ppts in the experimental group Only 10% of those treated with systematic desensitisation showed no significant reduction in fear measures

Answer 100

(Given the lack of improvement in the control group and the significant improvement of the experimental group) Systematic Desensitisation is an effective treatment for decreasing or eradicating fear of flying. He noted, however, that systematic desensitisation is not infallible, given that 10% of ppts were incorrectly classified. This suggests that future research should look at why the therapy was more successful in certain cases, rather than all.

Answer 101

R: Objective quantitative data was used I.V: Many controls were used

Answer 102

G: Volunteer sample- more keen ppts I.V: Volunteer sample- may be more subject to demand characteristics E.V: Lab experiment, used a video instead of a real flight

Answer 103

The finding that a fear of flying can be treated by systematic desensitisation could lead to changes in society where this therapy is offered as one of the main treatments for fear of flying, and perhaps other phobias. This could lead to significant personal, social + economics benefits as individuals are not prevented from flying on business, or to visit distant relatives.

Answer 104

P: The control group was aiming to get treatment for their fear, but they never go any treatment, prolonging their phobias.

Answer 105

Large samples can be bred in short time frames. When investigating characteristics across generations, it takes a relatively shorter time e.g. rats are used because of the speed they produce offspring (22 days) Animals don't have any demand characteristics There is a higher degree of control You can isolate variables from animals much easier than for humans Although unnecessary pain must be avoided, pain + distress is permitted Correct housing + treatment is provided It gives valid information on human processes We are able to generalise findings to some extent Animal research has provided significant insight into vital areas of medical research- including drug treatments, transplants, surgical techniques + cloning It has made significant contributions to our knowledge of the brain + nervous system Conditioning techniques have been used successfully in therapeutic settings Utilitarian Argument: animal research is justified, as it helps a significant amount of people

Answer 106

Animal Research is not credible and lacks ecological validity Animal research occurs in labs Too many differences between human + animals Antropomorphism - Where animals are mistakenly attributed with human qualities Animals and Humans are too Different There are differences in genetic makeup; and human behaviour + thought is subject to a lot more variables (e.g. culture, social norms, language) The benefits aren't known until the end It is possible that their study has little effect You can't do animal research just for curiosity Animal procedures will not be granted, unless the researcher can justify the costs in relation to the likely benefits of the research

Answer 107

Psychologists using animals in their research are allowed to cause a lot more harm and suffering than would be acceptable/legal when using human ppts. However there are laws that protect certain animals from excessive/unnecessary harm. These animals are offered some legal protection because they are considered to be capable of pain and suffering

Answer 108

The Scientific Procedures Act (1986) | Home Office Regulations

Answer 109

Psychologists must follow regulations when carrying out procedures that might result in pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm to a certain list of animals This act allows the use of animals in invasive research, such as manipulating genes, using poisonous substances, and making incisions in animals bodies or brains. The studies must offer some advancement in medicine, veterinary science or education. When keeping and caging the protected animals for research, they must follow the Animal Welfare Act (2006) to ensure satisfactory living conditions are met. They must also ensure animals are sourced/brought from ethical breeders, identified accurately and killed humanely after research if necessary

Answer 110

Psychologists must follow regulations within this act when conducting research on a list of "protected animals". This includes: 1. All non-human vertebrates (animals with a spine and brain like rats, dogs, monkeys, cats, fish, dolphins, birds, etc) 2. One invertebrate species (octopus – because they're highly intelligent and so can experience suffering)

Answer 111

If the researcher wishes to use animals in their study, they must apply for a license from the Home Office. They can only carry out the research once they have received approval. In order for a license to be granted, certain criteria must be met.

Answer 112

1. Cost-Benefit Analysis: The cost to the animal must be outweighed by the potential benefits of research. This will be determined by an ethics review panel 2. The "Three R's": The researcher must show they have fully considered them 3. Three separate licences must be obtained

Answer 113

Replacing animals with non-animal alternatives. (Eg computers, or even less sentiment animals) Reducing the numbers of animals used to the minimum required to achieve a result Refining procedures to minimise suffering

Answer 114

A personal license for each person carrying out procedures on animals A project license for the program of work/the particular study An establishment license for the price at which the work is carried out

Answer 115

Quantitative: can be counted / expressed numerically, but is concerned with words, texts, ideas + themes Qualitative: cannot be expressed numerically, but is concerned with words, texts ideas and themes

Answer 116

Observers write down when and how many times certain behaviours occurred. They may also take notes during the observation session, and review them later to try to determine behavioural patterns from the motes. Alternatively, they may also use audio / video recordings.

Answer 117

They must be clear and ambiguous In larger scale studies, observers need training to ensure they understand the operational definitions of behavioural changes. Training + standardisation of observers is important where more than one observer is making an assessment

Answer 118

Due to the potential volume of data to be recorded, researchers often use sampling to gather information. This can be time sampling or event sampling.

Answer 119

Making observations at Different Time Intervals. | e.g. every 30 seconds, and recording what is observed

Answer 120

It may not always be representative, as certain behaviours can be missed if they are only recorded at certain times.

Answer 121

Recording a Certain Behaviour every time it happens | e.g. Ticking a box every time someone displays a particular behaviour

Answer 122

If too many instances of the behaviour happen at once, the researcher may not be able to record all instances

Answer 123

These involve observing the behaviour of ppts within their own environment. The situation has not been created by the researcher and so allows them to gain a real insight into a person's behaviour

Answer 124

Stages observations that are normally carries out within an environment in which the researcher has some control (e.g. lab). Subsequent behaviour can be observed behind a one-way screen

Answer 125

Structured: + Good Reliability as the observation can be repeated with the same conditions + procedures set up in the laboratory to reconfirm results Naturalistic: - Poor Reliability as if the observation is repeated, the same conditions in the natural environment may change, making it difficult to reconfirm results

Answer 126

Structured: - Low ecological validity as the participants are in a laboratory which is not natural to them so they may not display natural behaviour Naturalistic: + High validity as the participants are in their natural environment so they should display natural behaviour

Answer 127

Structured: -Observer effects may be a problem as participants are likely to know they are being watched since they are in a laboratory, therefore they might guess the aim and alter their behaviour to fit with it , leading to demand characteristics (This can also link to validity) Naturalistic: + Observer effects are less likey as ppts are more relaxed due to them being in their natural environment. This makes them less likely to alter their behaviour to something more fitting

Answer 128

Structured: + Practical as the experimenter sets up the laboratory room, therefore tthey are able to position observers so they can clearly see behaviour and record accurate data. Naturalistic: -May have practical issues as the observer is in the natural environment of participants, e.g. outside, therefore it might be difficult to write notes if it is windy for example.

Answer 129

Those being observed are aware of the presence of an observer

Answer 130

The participant do not know they're being observed

Answer 131

Overt: - Participants may not behave naturally as they know they are being watched, therefore findings may not be valid Covert: +Participants should behave naturally as they do not know they are being watched, therefore results are valid

Answer 132

Overt: - Observer effects will occur as participants know they are being observed and therefore may alter their behaviour to fit with the aim leading to demand characteristics. Covert: + Observer effects should not occur as participants do not know they are being observed, and therefore should not alter their behaviour to fit with the aim, therefore reducing demand characteristics

Answer 133

Overt: + Practical as the researcher can easily take down observation notes as they are not hiding the fact they are observing Covert: -May be impractical as the researcher will not be able to openly take observation notes down as they are hiding the fact that they are observing.

Answer 134

Overt: +Ethical as researcher can gain full consent from participants to take part in the research since they are aware they are being observed Covert: - Not ethical as the researcher cannot gain informed consent from participants as they are undercover

Answer 135

The researcher takes an active role in the situation being observed.

Answer 136

The researcher observes behaviour of others, but does not form part of the group they study.

Answer 137

Participant: + May lack reliability as the impact of the observer may vary depending on their personality and behaviour, therefore replication with a different observer may lead to different results Non-Participant: +Fairly reliable as the observer's influence will not vary on replication as they are not involved, leading to consistent findings on replication.

Answer 138

Participant: +Valid as the observer will be part of the group and so will gain a deep insight into the reasons for their behaviour Non-Participant: - Lacks validity as the observer will be an outsider so they may not gain a deep insight into the reasons for behaviour

Answer 139

Participant: - Lacks objectivity as the researcher is part of the group so they may become too involved in activities and fail to draw objective conclusions Non-Participant: + Objective as the researcher remains separate from the group so they will not become involved and they can draw objective conclusions

Answer 140

Participant: -Not practical as it may be difficult for the researcher to note down their observations while they are taking part in group activities Non-Participant: + Practical as it will be easy for the researcher to make observation notes as they are not taking part in group activities

Answer 141

This method is typically used as a research tool to examine media content and see how common particular words, images, themes or concepts are. It is typically used for media content such as advertisements, books, films, newspapers, music videos etc. For example, the researcher might look at how common gender stereotyping is in children’s books.

Answer 142

1. The researcher would have to start with a research question – i.e. what do they want to find out about. The question should be quite specific so that it is easy to conduct the content analysis. 2. Create categories based on what is presented in the content. These categories should be based on what the purpose of the research is e.g for an analysis of gender roles in the home, you might have the categories of breadwinner (female), breadwinner (male), housewife, househusband. Etc and so you test those categories in a pilot study. (You could test for inter-rater reliability (if there is good inter-rater reliability, it means that more than one researcher agrees with the categories) 3. Select a sample of the material to be analysed – this might be for pilot purposes (when you test out your categories) So maybe 4 newspapers or music videos or films will be assessed for their content 4. Take a larger sample and take a tally on how many times the categories are being emphasised – this is your real content analysis so you will want to take a larger sample 5. You would then analyse your findings – look for trends, make graphs, you could try to find more themes within your findings.

Answer 143

Ethics: They are ethical, as data is collected from existing sources rather than live ppts Useful: It offers the opportunity for a fresh interpretation of existing data, which may not be achieved via other methods It's useful for analysing historical material + documenting trends over time Reliability: Reliability can be easily assessed as the content analysis can be easily replicated with the same sources

Answer 144

Subjectivity: A content analysis is a purely descriptive method; so it's subject to bias I.V: The categories used should represent what they intend to measure, otherwise the data won't be valid May be limited by the availability of material Observed trends may not reflect reliability

Answer 145

Is there a link between viewing violence in the media and aggressive behaviour?

Answer 146

Violence portrayed by role models will leads to increased violence More tax payers money will be needed to spend on solving crimes Young people are largely affected by the media, as they are still learning Governments have a big responsibility to regulate media / reduce violent context

Answer 147

Current regulations (watershed) aren't helpful. (Limit freedom?) Violence in society should be attributed to other causes (ignored by government) Mental health issues hindered by poverty Government should try to improve society in other ways to reduce violence (reducing inequality)

Answer 148

SLT: Individuals pay attention in the media (e.g. Rocky). They retain/remember the violence (e.g. the fighting), and later imitate/copy the violence (e.g. get into a fight) Vicarious Reinforcement: If they see a character in the film receiving status from violent behaviour, they may copy in the hope of receiving the same rewards (e.g. James Bond glamourises violence) Characters in TV are more likely to be chosen as role models as they are charismatic, good-looking and have a high status Violent behaviour is positively reinforced through the concept such as gaining points through assaulting players (GTA) Bandura 1961: Strong evidence that children can learn aggressive behaviour through SLT. It is a standardised procedure and has high i.validity

Answer 149

Charlriton's study suggests there is no link between violence in the media and aggressive behaviour. Violent behaviour on the island of Saint Helena did not increase after television was added. (Naturalistic observation) However, this research is weak evidence because the island is a small population that's not generalisable Catharsis is the process of releasing and providing relief from repressed emotions. Video games act as a form of catharsis, and reduce the likelihood of people actually acting violently in real life Biological psychologists have found a gene that is more common in violent criminals. (Thing is, does this take away responsibility?)

Answer 150

Naturalistic observation of gender differences in pro social behaviour in a shop

Answer 151

SLT: we observe something, then we retain it, reproduce it with the motivation to do so Eagly (2009): Women + men both show similar amounts of pro-social behaviour (PSB), but they show different types of PSB. Leslie, Snyder + Glomb: Women dominate more - e.g. women are more likely to give up their seat on public transport

Answer 152

To investigate whether males or females show more pro social behaviour in a shop or supermarket, by thanking the shopping assistant.

Answer 153

IV: Gender Operationalised through judging people as male (XY) or female (XX), through physical appearance + clothes DV: Pro/Non-Pro Social Behaviour: Defined as- Pro: talkative + approachable, respectful to society; thanking Non-Pro: not as talkative, and not as respectful; not thanking

Answer 154

There will be no significant difference between male + female politeness and pro-social behaviour (shown through thanking), and any difference will be due to chance.

Answer 155

There will be a difference between male + female pro-social behaviour; however the gender difference with more PSB is unknown.

Answer 156

Independent Measures They only experience one level of the IV (gender)

Answer 157

Opportunity Sample It's the easiest/least time consuming way to do it; it's just whoever's in the shop

Answer 158

Naturalistic: It's in a shop environment Non-Participant: We're not being participants Covert: The participants are unaware of what's going on

Answer 159

We'd have to separate and act like we're just shopping, to reduce DC We'll work in pairs in the shop, to increase inter-rate reliability We'll observe both male and female check out assistants

Answer 160

Qualitative Data: What they say Quantitative Data: Keeping a tally of pro/non-pro social behaviour with each gender

Answer 161

The apparatus used were phones We will exclude recording certain people that passes through the check out - e.g. large groups, people on the phone - as other factors would be affecting their behaviour

Answer 162

Competence: we are psychology students aware of pro-social behaviour + learning psychology Psychological Harm: Nothing within the experiment will cause harm

Answer 163

Informed Consent: None was given, due to it being a covert observation Debriefieing: There was no debrief Right to Withdraw: There was no right Deception: Even though they weren't tricked into thinking a different aim, this is a bad thing as the ppts still weren't aware of the aim

Answer 164

We positioned ourselves to be in separate places, as we were doing a covert observation + didn't want to increase the chances of any demand characteristics In total, we observed 7 male + 7 female shoppers. We gathered qualitative data by asking notes on what they may have said ad how they behaved, and gathered quantitative data by tallying everytime someone said "thank you"

Answer 165

5 out of the 7 males showed PSB of thanking the shop assistant. 2 did not. 3 out of the 7 females showed PSB of thanking the shop assistant. 4 did not.

Answer 166

Males show more PSB than females. This may be due to SLT whereby males + females may learn gender typical behaviours towards shop assistants, through observing/retaining/reproducing politeness within a shop. This research is inconsistent with previous research from Leslie, Snyder + Glomb, who suggested that women are more dominant and more likely to do polite things

Answer 167

Reliability: The quantitative data of tallying how many people said "thank you" is standardised Practical Application Ecological Validity: A shop is a naturalistic environment

Answer 168

Generalisability: The sample size was only 14 Internal Validity: There was no way of controlling extraneous variables (eg. emotions previous to entering the shop)

Answer 169

Observing on different days Observing for a longer time period

Learning Flashcards

(197 cards)