Learning Flashcards
What are Learning Theories about?
Students must show an understanding that learning theories are about learning from the environment and of the effects of conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, the role of reward and social learning on the organism.
What is the Perspective taken on the Learning Approach?
The learning approach, referred to as behaviourism, explains human behaviour as a product of a learning experience. We acquire behaviour for observation and imitation, association, and the consequences of a reward / punishment.
How does classical conditioning begin (in terms of Pavlov’s Dog) ?
UCS = Food
UCR = Salivation
NS = Bell
What is beginning to happen (stage 2) in Pavlov’s Dog?
Association occurs between the UCS (food) and NS (bell)
What ends up happening in Pavlov’s Dog experiment (stage 3)?
The NS (bell) becomes the CS, giving a CR of salivation
What is meant by the UCS and UCR?
Unconditioned Stimulus: the incumbent object/ thing
Unconditioned Response: the natural reflex
What is the NS?
Neutral Stimulus: something that gives no reaction/ reflex
What is the CS and CR?
Conditioned Stimulus: Originally the Neutral Stimulus, it has been associated with the UCS
Conditioned Response: The now natural reaction to the CS. This is the same reaction to the UCS
What’s the Background of Pavlov’s study?
He was originally interested in studying digestive processes.
In Pavlov’s experiment, he sets out the idea of reflexes, and links to the cerebral cortex; where he feels paths are established when new associations are made
Pavlov came involved in studying reflex reactions reflex reactions when he noticed the dogs reacting to the lab coats of his assistants. Each time the dogs were presented with food, the assistant brought the food whilst wearing a lab coat. In essence, the dogs were responding as if food was on its way in the presence of a lab coat.
In a sequence of experiments, Pavlov then tried to establish how the 2 phenomena were linked
What was the Aim of Pavlov’s experiment?
To see how the cerebral cortex works, by looking at natural associations between stimuli and reflex response in organisms.
What was the Procedure of Pavlov’s experiment?
Pavlov created a soundproof lab to see if the presentation of precise stimuli would evoke a response in conditions that ensured no direct contact between the dogs + experimenter
Pavlov used dogs in his experiments; and chose that the reflex of salivation to food, and the salivation reflex that is there to reject ‘bad’ food from the mouth
Pavlov the used a NS, e.g. a metronome
Over several learning trials, the dog was presented with the ticking of the metronome immediately before the food appeared
What were the Results of Pavlov’s study?
If the metronome was ticking in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the sound of the metronome with food.
After a while, just at the sound of he metronome, they responded by drooling.
What was the Conclusion of Pavlov’s study?
Environmental stimuli that previously had no relations to a reflex action could, through repeated pairings, trigger a salivation reflex
Through the process of associative learning (conditioning), the conditioned stimulus leads to a conditioned respo
What are the Advantages of Pavlov’s study?
Reliability: Representing the food + metronome simultaneously is a standardised procedure
Practical Application:
Internal Validity: Pavlov used a soundproofed lab, so that even hearing footsteps outside the room was not possible.
What are the Disadvantages of Pavlov’s study?
Generalisability: Pavlov used a dog, which can not be generalisable to humans
Ecological Validity: The experiment happened in an artificial environment
Who conducted the Little Albert experiment?
Watson and Rayner
When was the Little Albert study conducted?
1920
What was the aim of the Little Albert study?
To investigate whether a child can be classically conditioned to fear a white rat.
What happened before the conditioning in Little Albert’s experiment?
- 9 month old Albert was shown a variety of objects, including a mask, a monkey and a white rat
- He showed no fear to any, and petted the white rat
- NS = White Rat
What happened during the conditioning stage of Little Albert’s experiment?
- A week after the initial showcase of objects, he was shown the same objects. When the pet rat appeared, they banged a steel bar. This made Albert scared.
- They did this four times a week
- UCS = Steel Bar UCR= Fear
What happened during the conditioning stage of Little Albert’s experiment?
- A week after the initial showcase of objects, he was shown the same objects. When the pet rat appeared, they banged a steel bar. This made Albert scared.
- They did this four times a week
- UCS = Steel Bar UCR= Fear
What happened after the conditioning of Little Albert’s experiment? (Results part 1)
- Albert was scared of the pet rat, and cried every time it came near
- This fear generalised to similar objects, like a Santa’s beard, a white coat + a rabbit
- CS = White Rat CR= Fear
What happened 3 months after the Little Albert experiment? (Results part 2)
- 3 months later, extinction happened with his fear of the similar objects. He was still scared of the rat.
- He was removed from the experiment before they could get rid of his phobia
What did Watson + Rayner conclude about their Little Albert study?
You can be classically conditioned to fear an object.
Generalisation + extinction occurs with conditioning.
Was the Little Albert study Internally Valid?
Lab experiment, where variables were controlled; making results internally valid
Was the Little Albert study Ecologically Valid?
Lab experiment, where things aren’t natural (aren’t presented with object and strategically give the UCS of steel bar), possibly unnatural behaviour; limiting ecological validity
Which Ethical Guidelines did the Little Albert study break?
Protection from Harm (they inflicted fear)
Right to Withdraw (a 9 month old can’t discuss this)
Informed Consent (a 9 month old can’t consent)
Deception (the mother said she never knew what was going on)
Debriefing (the mother took Albert away before they could debrief)
What did Edward Thorndike say about Instrumental L Learning?
Instrumental Learning:
The term Edward Thorndike originally gave to the form of learning where the consequences of the behaviour dictates the further repeating of it.
What is the Law of Effect?
The idea that a response followed by a pleasant consequence is repeated; and one with a negative effect tends not to repeated, or it withdrew
What is Punishment?
Trying to reduce a certain (usually negative) behaviour
What is Reinforcement?
Trying to increase a certain (usually positive) behaviour
What is the ABC Model of Operant Conditioning?
Antecedant: A stimulus that triggers a behaviour
Behaviour: An observable response as an outcome of the antecedant
Consequence: The reward/punishment following the behaviour
What is Positive Punishment?
Adding an unpleasant stimulus that will reduce the showing of a behaviour
What is Negative Punishment?
The removal of a desirable stimulus to reduce the showing of a behaviour.
What is Negative Reinforcement?
The removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the showing of a behaviour.
What is Positive Reinforcement?
Adding a desirable stimulus that will increase the showing of a behaviour
What were the ‘Skinner’s Box’ lab experiments?
Skinner started his research in the 1930, using lab experiments with his ‘Skinner Box’
A Skinner Box was essentially a box that could dispense food and electric shocks to animals such as rats and pigeons.
How did the ‘Skinner Box’ experiment show Positive Reinforcement?
If the rat/pigeon was given something pleasurable (food) following a desired behaviour (lever pressing) they are more likely to repeat this behaviour in the future.
How did the ‘Skinner Box’ experiment show Negative Reinforcement?
If a rat/pigeon is given an electric shock until a lever is pressed, they are more likely to press the lever again to avoid electric shocks in the future.
How did the ‘Skinner Box’ experiment show Punishment?
If a rat presses a lever and is given an electric shock, it will stop pressing the lever to make sure it does not get another electric shock in the future.
What is Primary Reinforcement?
Using rewards that satisfy basic human survival needs, to increase the frequency of a behaviour.
What is Secondary Reinforcement?
Using rewards that are desired because they can be used to obtain primary reinforcers, to increase the frequency of a behaviour.
What are Token Economy Programmes?
People are given worthless tokens (secondary reinforcers) when they carry out desirable behaviour. These tokens can be exchange for meaningful rewards (primary reinforcers) such as food, leisure time, visitors rights, etc.
These are used in prisons, schools and sometimes with mental health patients.
What are the Issues with token economy programmes?
(Social Control)
Some question whether it’s morally acceptable to manipulate the patients in this way:
Some argue that TEPs exist to benefit the staff looking after the patients by making them easier to control, as opposed to actually helping the patients.
What is Continuous Reinforcement?
When a behaviour is reinforced every time it is seen.
This schedule is best used during the early stages of learning, in order to create a strong link between the behaviour and response
What is Partial Reinforcement?
When a behaviour is reinforced in some of the occasions it is seen.
Learned behaviours are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction (dying out)
What is a Fixed Interval schedule of reinforcement?
Where the first response is rewarded, only after a specific amount of time has passed.
What is a Variable Interval schedule of reinforcement?
When a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed
What is a Fixed Ratio schedule of reinforcement?
Where a response is rewarded, after a specific number of resources.
What is a Variable Ratio schedule of reinforcement?
A response is rewarded after a number of resources. For the next reward, the number of responses is different.
What are some Examples of Primary Reinforcers?
Good Water Shelter Emotional satisfaction (love, care, etc) Sex
What are some Examples of Secondary Reinforcers?
Money Stickers (from teachers) Merits (from teachers) Tokens (e.g. in prisons) Grades in school
What are the Two Schedules of Reinforcement?
Continuous Reinforcement
Partial Reinforcement
What are the 4 different Schedules of Partial Reinforcement?
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
What is the Effect of using Fixed Interval on behaviour?
Learning behaviour takes longer
Causes high amounts of responding near the end of the Interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer (e.g. with employees and wages)
What is the Effect of using Variable Interval on behaviour?
The rate of response is relatively slow, but steady
Very resistant to extinction (dying out)
What is the Effect of using Fixed Ratio on behaviour?
Produces a high, steady rate of responding, with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer
What is the Effect of using Variable Ratio on behaviour?
Creates a high, steady rate of responding
How did the Skinner Box experiment use Fixed Interval, Variable Interval, Fixed Ratio and Variable Ratio?
Fixed Interval: The rat gets a food pellet for pressing the lever, but only after a 30 second delay
Variable Interval: The rat gets its first food pellet for pressing the lever after a 30s delay, then 12s, then 25s, etc.
Fixed Ratio: The rat gets a pellet after pressing the lever every 8 times
Variable Ratio: The rat gets a food pelle after pressing the lever 8 times, then 4, then 7, etc
What are the main features of Social Learning Theory?
Observation (learning new behaviours through watching others)
Imitation (copying the behaviour that’s been observed)
Modelling (Observation and imitation combined)
How can learning through modelling/SLT be aided?
Vicarious Reinforcement
Identification
What is Vicarious Reinforcement (SLT) ?
When a person sees the consequence of someone’s behaviour, and thus copies that behaviour to get the same reward
What is Identification (SLT) ?
When a person wants to be like their role model; and so they take on many aspect of that person (e.g values, beliefs + attitudes), and therefore their behaviour.
This is more likely to happen when the role model is the same sex as the observer, and inspires admiration due to high status/ power.
What are the 3 Stages of Social Learning Theory?
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
What is Attention (SLT)?
Selectively focusing on/ paying attention to specific information
What Factors affect Attention for SLT?
How distinctive/ unusual the behaviour is
How alert/ awake the observer is
The characteristics of the role model (e.g. age + gender)
What is Retention?
Remembering the behaviour observed
This may be in the form of Mental Images, or Verbal Description
What is Reproduction (SLT)?
Carrying out the Observed Behaviour at a Later Time
They must have the Physical capabilities to Carry it Out
What is meant by motivation (SLT) ?
A Necessary Condition the Observer Must Have in order for the Other Stages to Take Place
What is Intrinsic Motivation?
Doing Something because it makes you Feel Good (personal benefits)
What is Extrinsic Motivation?
Doing Something to get a Physical/ Tangible Reward at the End
What is Self-Efficacy?
An important factor in SLT is Self-Efficacy.
Self Efficacy: The belief in one’s capabilities to organise and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations.
Bandura argued that in addition to requiring a role model in order to imitate behaviour, it’s final reproduction relies not just on reward, but the child’s Self Confidence and Belief to imitate the behaviour.
What are the Positives of SLT?
SLT is based on lab-based research methods that ensure reliability and allow inferences about a cause + effect relationship to be made.
SLT does allow for individual differences, and acknowledges that cognitive + motivational factors can influence behaviour (retention/motivation)
What are the Negatives of SLT?
The studies SLT is based on lack ecological validity, as they’re in artificial settings
How does SLT have Application to Society?
SLT has made a significant contribution to the psychology of aggression + gender development, and has formed the basis for a range of treatments such as phobias: with patients, the role model could be their therapist, or someone they already know
What are some Issues and Debates surrounding Social Learning Theory?
Nature vs Nurture:
SLT ignores evolutionary factors and other biological influences on behaviour
Deterministic:
The approach generally does not acknowledge the influence of free will, making it slightly deterministic.
Reductionist:
SLT can be accused of reductionism, by breaking down highly complex behaviours to merely observational learning
What was the Aim of Bandura’s (1961) experiment?
To investigate whether children exposed to a more aggressive role model would initiate behaviour shown, ans if similar results would occur with a non-aggressive role model
To investigate gender, and if one gender would be more susceptible to imitate than the other
What was the Sample Size of Bandura’s (1961) experiment?
72 children (36 boys + 36 girls)
Separated into 3 equal groups of 24
- Aggressive condition
- Non-aggressive condition
- Control group
The group of 24 had equal amount of males and females (12 each)
Out of each 12, 6 saw a male role model, and 6 saw a female.
The control group of 24 saw no model
