Learning Flashcards
What are Learning Theories about?
Students must show an understanding that learning theories are about learning from the environment and of the effects of conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, the role of reward and social learning on the organism.
What is the Perspective taken on the Learning Approach?
The learning approach, referred to as behaviourism, explains human behaviour as a product of a learning experience. We acquire behaviour for observation and imitation, association, and the consequences of a reward / punishment.
How does classical conditioning begin (in terms of Pavlov’s Dog) ?
UCS = Food
UCR = Salivation
NS = Bell
What is beginning to happen (stage 2) in Pavlov’s Dog?
Association occurs between the UCS (food) and NS (bell)
What ends up happening in Pavlov’s Dog experiment (stage 3)?
The NS (bell) becomes the CS, giving a CR of salivation
What is meant by the UCS and UCR?
Unconditioned Stimulus: the incumbent object/ thing
Unconditioned Response: the natural reflex
What is the NS?
Neutral Stimulus: something that gives no reaction/ reflex
What is the CS and CR?
Conditioned Stimulus: Originally the Neutral Stimulus, it has been associated with the UCS
Conditioned Response: The now natural reaction to the CS. This is the same reaction to the UCS
What’s the Background of Pavlov’s study?
He was originally interested in studying digestive processes.
In Pavlov’s experiment, he sets out the idea of reflexes, and links to the cerebral cortex; where he feels paths are established when new associations are made
Pavlov came involved in studying reflex reactions reflex reactions when he noticed the dogs reacting to the lab coats of his assistants. Each time the dogs were presented with food, the assistant brought the food whilst wearing a lab coat. In essence, the dogs were responding as if food was on its way in the presence of a lab coat.
In a sequence of experiments, Pavlov then tried to establish how the 2 phenomena were linked
What was the Aim of Pavlov’s experiment?
To see how the cerebral cortex works, by looking at natural associations between stimuli and reflex response in organisms.
What was the Procedure of Pavlov’s experiment?
Pavlov created a soundproof lab to see if the presentation of precise stimuli would evoke a response in conditions that ensured no direct contact between the dogs + experimenter
Pavlov used dogs in his experiments; and chose that the reflex of salivation to food, and the salivation reflex that is there to reject ‘bad’ food from the mouth
Pavlov the used a NS, e.g. a metronome
Over several learning trials, the dog was presented with the ticking of the metronome immediately before the food appeared
What were the Results of Pavlov’s study?
If the metronome was ticking in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the sound of the metronome with food.
After a while, just at the sound of he metronome, they responded by drooling.
What was the Conclusion of Pavlov’s study?
Environmental stimuli that previously had no relations to a reflex action could, through repeated pairings, trigger a salivation reflex
Through the process of associative learning (conditioning), the conditioned stimulus leads to a conditioned respo
What are the Advantages of Pavlov’s study?
Reliability: Representing the food + metronome simultaneously is a standardised procedure
Practical Application:
Internal Validity: Pavlov used a soundproofed lab, so that even hearing footsteps outside the room was not possible.
What are the Disadvantages of Pavlov’s study?
Generalisability: Pavlov used a dog, which can not be generalisable to humans
Ecological Validity: The experiment happened in an artificial environment
Who conducted the Little Albert experiment?
Watson and Rayner
When was the Little Albert study conducted?
1920
What was the aim of the Little Albert study?
To investigate whether a child can be classically conditioned to fear a white rat.
What happened before the conditioning in Little Albert’s experiment?
- 9 month old Albert was shown a variety of objects, including a mask, a monkey and a white rat
- He showed no fear to any, and petted the white rat
- NS = White Rat
What happened during the conditioning stage of Little Albert’s experiment?
- A week after the initial showcase of objects, he was shown the same objects. When the pet rat appeared, they banged a steel bar. This made Albert scared.
- They did this four times a week
- UCS = Steel Bar UCR= Fear
What happened during the conditioning stage of Little Albert’s experiment?
- A week after the initial showcase of objects, he was shown the same objects. When the pet rat appeared, they banged a steel bar. This made Albert scared.
- They did this four times a week
- UCS = Steel Bar UCR= Fear
What happened after the conditioning of Little Albert’s experiment? (Results part 1)
- Albert was scared of the pet rat, and cried every time it came near
- This fear generalised to similar objects, like a Santa’s beard, a white coat + a rabbit
- CS = White Rat CR= Fear
What happened 3 months after the Little Albert experiment? (Results part 2)
- 3 months later, extinction happened with his fear of the similar objects. He was still scared of the rat.
- He was removed from the experiment before they could get rid of his phobia
What did Watson + Rayner conclude about their Little Albert study?
You can be classically conditioned to fear an object.
Generalisation + extinction occurs with conditioning.
Was the Little Albert study Internally Valid?
Lab experiment, where variables were controlled; making results internally valid
Was the Little Albert study Ecologically Valid?
Lab experiment, where things aren’t natural (aren’t presented with object and strategically give the UCS of steel bar), possibly unnatural behaviour; limiting ecological validity
Which Ethical Guidelines did the Little Albert study break?
Protection from Harm (they inflicted fear)
Right to Withdraw (a 9 month old can’t discuss this)
Informed Consent (a 9 month old can’t consent)
Deception (the mother said she never knew what was going on)
Debriefing (the mother took Albert away before they could debrief)
What did Edward Thorndike say about Instrumental L Learning?
Instrumental Learning:
The term Edward Thorndike originally gave to the form of learning where the consequences of the behaviour dictates the further repeating of it.
What is the Law of Effect?
The idea that a response followed by a pleasant consequence is repeated; and one with a negative effect tends not to repeated, or it withdrew
What is Punishment?
Trying to reduce a certain (usually negative) behaviour
What is Reinforcement?
Trying to increase a certain (usually positive) behaviour
What is the ABC Model of Operant Conditioning?
Antecedant: A stimulus that triggers a behaviour
Behaviour: An observable response as an outcome of the antecedant
Consequence: The reward/punishment following the behaviour
What is Positive Punishment?
Adding an unpleasant stimulus that will reduce the showing of a behaviour
What is Negative Punishment?
The removal of a desirable stimulus to reduce the showing of a behaviour.
What is Negative Reinforcement?
The removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the showing of a behaviour.
What is Positive Reinforcement?
Adding a desirable stimulus that will increase the showing of a behaviour
What were the ‘Skinner’s Box’ lab experiments?
Skinner started his research in the 1930, using lab experiments with his ‘Skinner Box’
A Skinner Box was essentially a box that could dispense food and electric shocks to animals such as rats and pigeons.
How did the ‘Skinner Box’ experiment show Positive Reinforcement?
If the rat/pigeon was given something pleasurable (food) following a desired behaviour (lever pressing) they are more likely to repeat this behaviour in the future.
How did the ‘Skinner Box’ experiment show Negative Reinforcement?
If a rat/pigeon is given an electric shock until a lever is pressed, they are more likely to press the lever again to avoid electric shocks in the future.
How did the ‘Skinner Box’ experiment show Punishment?
If a rat presses a lever and is given an electric shock, it will stop pressing the lever to make sure it does not get another electric shock in the future.
What is Primary Reinforcement?
Using rewards that satisfy basic human survival needs, to increase the frequency of a behaviour.
What is Secondary Reinforcement?
Using rewards that are desired because they can be used to obtain primary reinforcers, to increase the frequency of a behaviour.
What are Token Economy Programmes?
People are given worthless tokens (secondary reinforcers) when they carry out desirable behaviour. These tokens can be exchange for meaningful rewards (primary reinforcers) such as food, leisure time, visitors rights, etc.
These are used in prisons, schools and sometimes with mental health patients.
What are the Issues with token economy programmes?
(Social Control)
Some question whether it’s morally acceptable to manipulate the patients in this way:
Some argue that TEPs exist to benefit the staff looking after the patients by making them easier to control, as opposed to actually helping the patients.
What is Continuous Reinforcement?
When a behaviour is reinforced every time it is seen.
This schedule is best used during the early stages of learning, in order to create a strong link between the behaviour and response
What is Partial Reinforcement?
When a behaviour is reinforced in some of the occasions it is seen.
Learned behaviours are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction (dying out)
What is a Fixed Interval schedule of reinforcement?
Where the first response is rewarded, only after a specific amount of time has passed.
What is a Variable Interval schedule of reinforcement?
When a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed
What is a Fixed Ratio schedule of reinforcement?
Where a response is rewarded, after a specific number of resources.
What is a Variable Ratio schedule of reinforcement?
A response is rewarded after a number of resources. For the next reward, the number of responses is different.
What are some Examples of Primary Reinforcers?
Good Water Shelter Emotional satisfaction (love, care, etc) Sex
What are some Examples of Secondary Reinforcers?
Money Stickers (from teachers) Merits (from teachers) Tokens (e.g. in prisons) Grades in school
What are the Two Schedules of Reinforcement?
Continuous Reinforcement
Partial Reinforcement
What are the 4 different Schedules of Partial Reinforcement?
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
What is the Effect of using Fixed Interval on behaviour?
Learning behaviour takes longer
Causes high amounts of responding near the end of the Interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer (e.g. with employees and wages)
What is the Effect of using Variable Interval on behaviour?
The rate of response is relatively slow, but steady
Very resistant to extinction (dying out)
What is the Effect of using Fixed Ratio on behaviour?
Produces a high, steady rate of responding, with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer
What is the Effect of using Variable Ratio on behaviour?
Creates a high, steady rate of responding
How did the Skinner Box experiment use Fixed Interval, Variable Interval, Fixed Ratio and Variable Ratio?
Fixed Interval: The rat gets a food pellet for pressing the lever, but only after a 30 second delay
Variable Interval: The rat gets its first food pellet for pressing the lever after a 30s delay, then 12s, then 25s, etc.
Fixed Ratio: The rat gets a pellet after pressing the lever every 8 times
Variable Ratio: The rat gets a food pelle after pressing the lever 8 times, then 4, then 7, etc
What are the main features of Social Learning Theory?
Observation (learning new behaviours through watching others)
Imitation (copying the behaviour that’s been observed)
Modelling (Observation and imitation combined)
How can learning through modelling/SLT be aided?
Vicarious Reinforcement
Identification
What is Vicarious Reinforcement (SLT) ?
When a person sees the consequence of someone’s behaviour, and thus copies that behaviour to get the same reward
What is Identification (SLT) ?
When a person wants to be like their role model; and so they take on many aspect of that person (e.g values, beliefs + attitudes), and therefore their behaviour.
This is more likely to happen when the role model is the same sex as the observer, and inspires admiration due to high status/ power.
What are the 3 Stages of Social Learning Theory?
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
What is Attention (SLT)?
Selectively focusing on/ paying attention to specific information
What Factors affect Attention for SLT?
How distinctive/ unusual the behaviour is
How alert/ awake the observer is
The characteristics of the role model (e.g. age + gender)
What is Retention?
Remembering the behaviour observed
This may be in the form of Mental Images, or Verbal Description
What is Reproduction (SLT)?
Carrying out the Observed Behaviour at a Later Time
They must have the Physical capabilities to Carry it Out
What is meant by motivation (SLT) ?
A Necessary Condition the Observer Must Have in order for the Other Stages to Take Place
What is Intrinsic Motivation?
Doing Something because it makes you Feel Good (personal benefits)
What is Extrinsic Motivation?
Doing Something to get a Physical/ Tangible Reward at the End
What is Self-Efficacy?
An important factor in SLT is Self-Efficacy.
Self Efficacy: The belief in one’s capabilities to organise and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations.
Bandura argued that in addition to requiring a role model in order to imitate behaviour, it’s final reproduction relies not just on reward, but the child’s Self Confidence and Belief to imitate the behaviour.
What are the Positives of SLT?
SLT is based on lab-based research methods that ensure reliability and allow inferences about a cause + effect relationship to be made.
SLT does allow for individual differences, and acknowledges that cognitive + motivational factors can influence behaviour (retention/motivation)
What are the Negatives of SLT?
The studies SLT is based on lack ecological validity, as they’re in artificial settings
How does SLT have Application to Society?
SLT has made a significant contribution to the psychology of aggression + gender development, and has formed the basis for a range of treatments such as phobias: with patients, the role model could be their therapist, or someone they already know
What are some Issues and Debates surrounding Social Learning Theory?
Nature vs Nurture:
SLT ignores evolutionary factors and other biological influences on behaviour
Deterministic:
The approach generally does not acknowledge the influence of free will, making it slightly deterministic.
Reductionist:
SLT can be accused of reductionism, by breaking down highly complex behaviours to merely observational learning
What was the Aim of Bandura’s (1961) experiment?
To investigate whether children exposed to a more aggressive role model would initiate behaviour shown, ans if similar results would occur with a non-aggressive role model
To investigate gender, and if one gender would be more susceptible to imitate than the other
What was the Sample Size of Bandura’s (1961) experiment?
72 children (36 boys + 36 girls)
Separated into 3 equal groups of 24
- Aggressive condition
- Non-aggressive condition
- Control group
The group of 24 had equal amount of males and females (12 each)
Out of each 12, 6 saw a male role model, and 6 saw a female.
The control group of 24 saw no model
What was the Procedure of Bandura’s (1961) experiment?
1- Children were brought in a room, shown how to play with various toys
2- An adult model was brought into the room and sat on another table
3- Aggressive Model: The models played with the tinker toys 1 min, then showed physical + verbal aggresion to the Bobo doll
3- Non-Aggressive Model: The model stayed in the corner of the room playing quietly with the tinker toys and ignoring the Bobo doll
Control Group: They were left alone with toys, and were observed for 20 mins
What were the Results of Bandura’s (1961) experiment?
Aggressive Model: The children showed a lot more verbal + physical aggression
Boys to Aggressive Male Model: 28.5 acts of aggression
Boys to Non-Aggressive Male Model: 1.5 acts
Boys in Control Group: 2 acts
The children in the aggressive condition came up with acts of aggression different to the ones originally presented, and copied the verbal sayings showed by the model
The girls spent more time playing with the dolls, whereas the boys spent more time with guns
What was the Conclusion of Bandura’s (1961) experiment?
Children exposed to an aggressive role model were likely to imitate their behaviour
Boys were ore susceptible to imitate aggression, and girls verbal aggression
Boys were more likely to imitate same sex models than girls
What were the Advantages of Bandura’s (1961) experiment?
Generalisabiity: The experiment involved a large sample of 72 (m+f) children, assigned to 9 different conditions
Reliability: Having children lay with toys after an adult role model showed aggression/non-aggression is standardised
Application: The experiment made a huge contribution to understand how children learn to acquire behaviours through observing those around them.
Internal Validity: Extraneous variables were controlled, like how the child was in a room by himself with only a toy and an adult model
Also, a control group is used
What were the Disdvantages of Bandura’s (1961) experiment?
Generalisability: The participants were all ony children
Ecological Validity: The study took place in a small lab
Accuracy/Reliability: What’s seen as aggressive acts are subjective
Application: Bandura only only looked at the short term immediate impact of an aggressive role model
What ethical issue surrounded Bandura’s (1961) experiment?
Loftus + Weaver (1998) argued that the study was unethical because the children were manipulated to behave aggressively. Agitation and dissatisfaction was shown through the taunts and they were not allowed to play with certain toys, making them upset and thus Bandura didn’t protect them from harm
When did Bandura’s Original Study take place?
1961
Did Bandura’s (1961) experiment have Practical Application?
Yes: The experiment made a huge contribution to understand how children learn to acquire behaviours through observing those around them.
No: Bandura only only looked at the short term immediate impact of an aggressive role model
When did Bandura’s Vicarious Reinforcement Study take place?
1965
What was the Aim of Bandura’s (1965) Vicarious Reinforcement Study?
To investigate whether children would imitate new verbal + physical behaviour shown by a televised role model
To see if children would be more likely to imitate the behaviour if they saw the model receive a reward for heir behaviour (vicarious reinforcement)
What was the Sample Size of Bandura’s (1965) Vicarious Reinforcement Study?
66 children (33M + 33F)
Split into 3 equal groups (11m+ 11f):
Adult model REWARDED for aggression
Adult model PUNISHED for aggression
Adult Model GETS NOTHING for aggression
What was the Procedure of Bandura’s (1965) Vicarious Reinforcement Study?
Children were brought to a room and told they had to wait there + watch TV
They showed a 5 minue programme where a modl showed verbal + physical agggression to a Bobo doll
22 ppts saw the model get rewarded with drinks, sweets + praise
22 ppts saw a different adult punish the model with finger wagging, criticism and getting hit with a newspaper
22 ppts saw the model receive no consequences
Their behaviour was observed for 10mins, with the acts being recorded every 5 seconds.
The observer didn’t know what programme/condition the children got.
What were the Results of Bandura’s (1965) Vicarious Reinforcement Study?
Children were more likely to initiate aggressive behaviour if the model was rewarded
Boys initiated more violence than girls
What was the Conclusion of Bandura’s (1965) Vicarious Reinforcement Study?
Children initiated new verbal + physical behaviour shown by a televised role model
Children were more likely to imitate the behaviour if they saw the model receive a reward (vicarious reinforcement)
What were the Strengths of Bandura’s (1965) Vicarious Reinforcement Study?
G: The sample consisted with 66 males and females assigned to 3 different conditions
R: Children were shown a 5min programme where a model was aggressive to a Bobo doll and receive a different consequence, which is standardised
I.V: The ppts were placed in a room by themselves, and had no extraneous variables to affect the results.
I.V: The condition where the model received no consequence was a control group
What were the Weaknesses of Bandura’s (1965) Vicarious Reinforcement Study?
G: The sample only consisted of children
I.V: The results were measured through observations, which isn’t necessarily accurate as they don’t have any proper numerical data to back it up + allow comparisons
E.V: The children was placed in a small room which does not reflect real life behaviour
What is Behaviour Modification?
Behaviour modification is a therapy that has its theoretical basis in operant conditioning, and Skinner’s experiments.
The ideas behind behaviour modification are to:
- extinguish undesirable behaviour (by removing the reinforcer)
- replace original behaviour with a desirable behaviour, and reinforce it
What is the method of Successive Approximations?
In Skinner’s system, at the start of a behaviour-shaping exercise, very general desired behaviours are rewarded.
Once this behaviour has been shown, the rewards get more selective, so that only behaviours closer to the exact desired behaviour are reinforced.
This is in many ways a step-by-step process, gradually getting closer and closer to the desired behavior change.
How has behaviour modification been used as treatment?
It can be used as a mode of therapy to treat ADHD, OCD and Autism.
The target behaviour is identified, and then rewards are given for behaviours that gradually get closer to the target.
e.g. A therapist working with an autistic child may use rewards to reinforce good behaviour, then gradually encourage specific behaviours
What are the Strengths of Classical Comditioning?
A: What was accidentally observed by Pavlov is now a universally accepted principle in psychology; and it remains on of the most important principles in psychology’s history. It formed the basis of the behavioural/learning approach
Pavlov greatly influenced Watson and Skinner, and continues to inspire psychological research to this day. Between 1997 and 2000, 220+ articles appeared in scientific journals, citing his research on classical conditioning.
Concepts can be defined, precisely measured and controlled, as illustrated by Pavlov’s lab experiments on animals. As only observable behaviour is measured, it could be argued that this is an objective measure, making it scientific
What are the Strengths of Operant Conditioning?
Operant conditioning can explain a wide assortment of behaviours; from addiction to language acquisition:
A substance/activity can become addictive if it is rewarding (pleasurable or enjoyable).
If the child says a word correctly, they will receive a reward for that behaviour. This encourages the, to increase that behaviour and say the words right, shaping their language
Concepts can be defined, precisely measured and controlled, as illustrated by Skinner’s lab experiments on animals. As only observable behaviour is measured, it could be argued that this is an objective measure, making it scientific
What are the Weaknesses of Learning Theories?
Reductionist: All behaviour is reduced to learning through association or reinforcement. Theories greatly underestimate the role of biological factors, including genetic differences plus instincts on behaviour.
Skinner’s observations only account for observable behaviours, and don’t account for any on observable behaviours (e.g. mental and emotional states like anger/happiness)
Learning theories often use animal research to prove theories, but this raises the issue of extrapolating findings from animals and applying them to humans.
The contrived and artificial nature of such experiments question the ecological validity of the findings, and the extent they can be applied to real life settings
The use of lab experiments with animals raises ethical issues. It could be argued that Pavlov’s research, for instance, caused unnecessary suffering to the dogs in his experiment
What is a Phobia?
An ‘overwhelming and unbearable fear of an object, place situation, feeling or an animal’
A phobia is an anxiety disorder, a complex behaviour that when compared to a fear has more far reaching effect on the individual, both emotionally + socially.
What are the 3 Kinds of Phobias?
Specific Phobia: a phobia of animals
Inanimate Phobia: a phobia of non-living objects
Illness Phobia: a phobia of illnesses
What 3 Learning Theories Can be used to explain Phobias?
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Social Learning Theory
How can Classical Conditioning explain how Phobias are Acquired?
When you pair the UCS to the NS, to create a CS and CR.
Little Albert is a real life example for classical conditioning + phobias; through a white rat
What is the Problem with using Classical Conditioning to explain how Phobias are Acquired?
Not all phobias ca be linked back to a conditioning experience, and some would suggest the notion of classical conditioning in phobias has modest support
Kleinknecht studied a group of members of the American Tarantula Society; amongst those reporting to be afraid of tarantulas, no one reported a direct traumatic experience due to classical conditioning
How can Social Learning Theory explain how Phobias are Acquired?
Phobias can be acquired through vicarious reinforcement: A fear can be learned through observing the consequence of someone’s behaviour.
e.g. If someone gets consolidated and treated well for their fear, they may want that same treatment
Phobias can be acquired through observing others’ behaviour, through ARRM (the 4 stages)
e.g. a little boy may develop a fear of spiders when he sees his family screaming at one
What evidence Supports using Social Learning Theory to explain how Phobias are Acquired?
Mineka + Zinbarg
They described a case of a boy who developed a significant vomiting phobia after witnessing his grandfather vomiting whilst dying. His phobia was so severe, it caused him to contemplate suicide on one occasion when he felt nauseous + feared being sick.
How can Operant Conditioning explain how Phobias are Maintained?
One way of dealing with a fear is to avoid/escape from situations involving your fear; which removes the unpleasant feelings (negative reinforcement)
Phobias are hard to get rid of, as people feel rewarded for not going towards that fear
What do learning theories suggest about Phobias and Treatment?
They would argue that learning theories would argue that phobias are simply the result of maladaptive learning.
Therefore to treat it, you simply need to focus on observable behaviour change and the unlearning/deconditioning of the maladaptive behaviour associated with the phobia.
What are the 2 main categories of Treatments?
Exposure Treatments (based on classical conditioning) Modelling
What is Modelling as a Treatment for Phobias?
The fundamental idea behind this is that if the scared person sees another person acting in a relaxed + stress-free way around the phobic stimulus, they will vicariously learn that the stimulus won’t harm them.
e.g. A person with a snake phobia sees another person (e.g. older sibling) interacting happily with it without any fear.
What is a real life example of using Modelling as a Treatment for Phobias?
Mary Cover Jones’ Little Peter experiment
Peter was a 3yo boy afraid of rabbits. Cove Jones treated Peter through direct conditioning + modelling.
Each day, Peter and 3 other children were brought to the lab for a play period; where a rabbit was always present. New situations requiring closer contact with the rabbit were gradually introduced.
It became apparent the Peter showed progressive improvement from almost complete terror a the sight of the rabbit, to allowing the rabbit to nibble its fingers.
When was Systematic Desensitisation developed?
1950s
Who developed Systematic Desensitisation?
South African psychiatrist Joseph Wolpe
What are the 4 Stages of Systematic Desensitisation?
- Functional Analysis
- Anxiety Hierarchy
- Relaxation Training
- Gradual Exposure to Fear
What happens during the ‘functional analysis’ phase of systematic desensitisation?
A conversations between the therapist and client to identify the nature of the anxiety and the possible triggers
What happens during the ‘anxiety hierarchy’ phase of systematic desensitisation?
The patient and therapist create a hierarchy discussing which is the least and most anxiety provoking
It is also at this time where the patient discusses the speed and ‘extremity’ of the desensitisation
What happens during the ‘relaxation techniques’ phase of systematic desensitisation?
The patient is taught different relaxation techniques and breathing exercises (e.g. meditation) which suit them best
What happens during the ‘gradual exposure to fear’ phase of systematic desensitisation?
The patient gradually goes from the least anxiety provoking to the most anxiety provoking
Working through the agreed anxiety heirarchy, the phobic object is lowly and gradually introduced according to the scenarios agreed in the heirarchy. The therapist always works at the speed by the client
How can gradual exposure to fear be done? Which method is the most effective?
In vitro – the client imagines exposure to the phobic stimulus.
In vivo – the client is actually exposed to the phobic stimulus.
In vivo is known to be the most effective.
When did Capafóns’ study take place?
1998
What is the name of Capafóns’ (1998) study?
Systematic Desensitisation in the Treatment of the Fear of Flying
What were the Aims of Capafóns’ (1998) study?
To validate the effectiveness of systematic desensitisation as a treatment of a fear of flying
To assess the therapeutic success of a systematic desensitisation when applied to this specific phobia
Who were the Participants used in Capafóns’ (1998) study?
Participants were recruited using a media campaign, which informed them of the opportunity to take part in a free intervention programme aimed at treating a fear of flying
41 participants came forward:
20 (8M, 12F) were randomly assigned to the treatment group; 21 (9M, 12F) were the control group.
What scales and tests were used to measure behaviour in Capafóns’ (1998) study?
The IDG-FV and other various diagnostic scales were used to assess their fear of flying. Three key questions in the IDG-FV were allowed measurement before + after treatment
Other measures for assessing the dependent variable pre + post treatment were 3 EMV scales:
- Fear displayed during flight
- Fear of flight preliminaries (how they felt before getting on the plane)
- Fear without involvement (e.g. seeing a plane)
There were 2 EPAV scales, measuring the outcome of catastrophic thoughts and additional measures of anxiety.
They also measured ppts physical arousal (through heart rate, palm temp + muscular tension)
What was the Procedure of Capafóns’ (1998) study?
All participants were interviewed individually, and completed the IDG-FV.
They later came back to watch a video of a plane trip.
Before watching the video, there was a habituation session; where the ppts physics arousal was measured 3 minutes before the video. They were asked to feel as involved as possible
The interval for the pre- and post- test sessions was 8 weeks, and for the treatment group this involved 2 weekly 1 hour sessions
After 8 weeks, everyone was asked to retake the test.
What were the results of Capafóns’ (1998) study?
EMV Scale (fear during flight): Treatment group reduced by 12.35, Control group by 0.22 (p<0.001)
EPAV Scale (catastrophic thoughts): Treatment group reduced by 5.30, Control group by 0.09 (p<0.01)
Physical Arousal:
Treatment group reduced by 0.13, Control group gained 0.24 (p<0.01)
For the control group, the ‘mere passing of time’ without treatment didn’t lead to a reduction in their fear. However, treatment led to a reduction in all but 2 ppts in the experimental group
Only 10% of those treated with systematic desensitisation showed no significant reduction in fear measures
What was the Conclusion of Capafóns’ (1998) study?
(Given the lack of improvement in the control group and the significant improvement of the experimental group) Systematic Desensitisation is an effective treatment for decreasing or eradicating fear of flying.
He noted, however, that systematic desensitisation is not infallible, given that 10% of ppts were incorrectly classified. This suggests that future research should look at why the therapy was more successful in certain cases, rather than all.
What were the Strengths of Capafóns’ (1998) study?
R: Objective quantitative data was used
I.V: Many controls were used
What were the Weaknesses of Capafóns’ (1998) study?
G: Volunteer sample- more keen ppts
I.V: Volunteer sample- may be more subject to demand characteristics
E.V: Lab experiment, used a video instead of a real flight
What was the Practical Application of Capafóns’ (1998) study?
The finding that a fear of flying can be treated by systematic desensitisation could lead to changes in society where this therapy is offered as one of the main treatments for fear of flying, and perhaps other phobias. This could lead to significant personal, social + economics benefits as individuals are not prevented from flying on business, or to visit distant relatives.
What were the Ethical Issues surrounding Capafóns’ (1998) study?
P: The control group was aiming to get treatment for their fear, but they never go any treatment, prolonging their phobias.
What are the Reasons For animal research?
Large samples can be bred in short time frames.
When investigating characteristics across generations, it takes a relatively shorter time
e.g. rats are used because of the speed they produce offspring (22 days)
Animals don’t have any demand characteristics
There is a higher degree of control
You can isolate variables from animals much easier than for humans
Although unnecessary pain must be avoided, pain + distress is permitted
Correct housing + treatment is provided
It gives valid information on human processes
We are able to generalise findings to some extent
Animal research has provided significant insight into vital areas of medical research- including drug treatments, transplants, surgical techniques + cloning
It has made significant contributions to our knowledge of the brain + nervous system
Conditioning techniques have been used successfully in therapeutic settings
Utilitarian Argument: animal research is justified, as it helps a significant amount of people
What are the Reasons Against animal research?
Animal Research is not credible and lacks ecological validity
Animal research occurs in labs
Too many differences between human + animals
Antropomorphism - Where animals are mistakenly attributed with human qualities
Animals and Humans are too Different
There are differences in genetic makeup; and human behaviour + thought is subject to a lot more variables (e.g. culture, social norms, language)
The benefits aren’t known until the end
It is possible that their study has little effect
You can’t do animal research just for curiosity
Animal procedures will not be granted, unless the researcher can justify the costs in relation to the likely benefits of the research
Why is there Legislation on Animal Research?
Psychologists using animals in their research are allowed to cause a lot more harm and suffering than would be acceptable/legal when using human ppts.
However there are laws that protect certain animals from excessive/unnecessary harm. These animals are offered some legal protection because they are considered to be capable of pain and suffering
What are the 2 types of Animal Research Legislation?
The Scientific Procedures Act (1986)
Home Office Regulations
What is The Scientific Procedures Act (1986)?
Psychologists must follow regulations when carrying out procedures that might result in pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm to a certain list of animals
This act allows the use of animals in invasive research, such as manipulating genes, using poisonous substances, and making incisions in animals bodies or brains. The studies must offer some advancement in medicine, veterinary science or education.
When keeping and caging the protected animals for research, they must follow the Animal Welfare Act (2006) to ensure satisfactory living conditions are met.
They must also ensure animals are sourced/brought from ethical breeders, identified accurately and killed humanely after research if necessary
What animals are protected within the Scientific Procedures Act (1986)?
Psychologists must follow regulations within this act when conducting research on a list of “protected animals”.
This includes:
- All non-human vertebrates (animals with a spine and brain like rats, dogs, monkeys, cats, fish, dolphins, birds, etc)
- One invertebrate species (octopus – because they’re highly intelligent and so can experience suffering)
What are the Home Office Regulations?
If the researcher wishes to use animals in their study, they must apply for a license from the Home Office. They can only carry out the research once they have received approval. In order for a license to be granted, certain criteria must be met.
What are the 3 Types of Criteria that must be met wishing Home Office Regulations?
- Cost-Benefit Analysis:
The cost to the animal must be outweighed by the potential benefits of research. This will be determined by an ethics review panel - The “Three R’s”: The researcher must show they have fully considered them
- Three separate licences must be obtained
What are the “Three R’s” researchers have to fully consider when carrying out an animal study?
Replacing animals with non-animal alternatives. (Eg computers, or even less sentiment animals)
Reducing the numbers of animals used to the minimum required to achieve a result
Refining procedures to minimise suffering
What are the 3 separate licences psychologists need to carry out an animal study?
A personal license for each person carrying out procedures on animals
A project license for the program of work/the particular study
An establishment license for the price at which the work is carried out
How is Qualitative + Quantitative data obtained?
Quantitative: can be counted / expressed numerically, but is concerned with words, texts, ideas + themes
Qualitative: cannot be expressed numerically, but is concerned with words, texts ideas and themes
How is Tallying used?
Observers write down when and how many times certain behaviours occurred.
They may also take notes during the observation session, and review them later to try to determine behavioural patterns from the motes. Alternatively, they may also use audio / video recordings.
What Conditions should occur for Observations?
They must be clear and ambiguous
In larger scale studies, observers need training to ensure they understand the operational definitions of behavioural changes.
Training + standardisation of observers is important where more than one observer is making an assessment
Why do researchers use Samples in Human Research?
Due to the potential volume of data to be recorded, researchers often use sampling to gather information. This can be time sampling or event sampling.
What is Time Sampling?
Making observations at Different Time Intervals.
e.g. every 30 seconds, and recording what is observed
What is a Problem with Time Sampling?
It may not always be representative, as certain behaviours can be missed if they are only recorded at certain times.
What is Event Sampling?
Recording a Certain Behaviour every time it happens
e.g. Ticking a box every time someone displays a particular behaviour
What is a Problem with Event Sampling?
If too many instances of the behaviour happen at once, the researcher may not be able to record all instances
What are Naturalistic Observations?
These involve observing the behaviour of ppts within their own environment.
The situation has not been created by the researcher and so allows them to gain a real insight into a person’s behaviour
What are Structured Observations?
Stages observations that are normally carries out within an environment in which the researcher has some control (e.g. lab).
Subsequent behaviour can be observed behind a one-way screen
Are Structured / Naturalistic Observations Reliable?
Structured:
+ Good Reliability as the observation can be repeated with the same conditions + procedures set up in the laboratory to reconfirm results
Naturalistic:
- Poor Reliability as if the observation is repeated, the same conditions in the natural environment may change, making it difficult to reconfirm results
Are Structured / Naturalistic Observations Ecologically Valid?
Structured:
- Low ecological validity as the participants are in a laboratory which is not natural to them so they may not display natural behaviour
Naturalistic:
+ High validity as the participants are in their natural environment so they should display natural behaviour
Do Structured / Naturalistic Observations have Observer Effects/Demand Characteristics?
Structured:
-Observer effects may be a problem as participants are likely to know they are being watched since they are in a laboratory, therefore they might guess the aim and alter their behaviour to fit with it , leading to demand characteristics (This can also link to validity)
Naturalistic:
+ Observer effects are less likey as ppts are more relaxed due to them being in their natural environment. This makes them less likely to alter their behaviour to something more fitting
Are Structured / Naturalistic Observations Practical?
Structured:
+ Practical as the experimenter sets up the laboratory room, therefore tthey are able to position observers so they can clearly see behaviour and record accurate data.
Naturalistic:
-May have practical issues as the observer is in the natural environment of participants, e.g. outside, therefore it might be difficult to write notes if it is windy for example.
What are Overt Observations?
Those being observed are aware of the presence of an observer
What are Covert Observations?
The participant do not know they’re being observed
Are Overt / Covert Observations Valid?
Overt:
- Participants may not behave naturally as they know they are being watched, therefore findings may not be valid
Covert:
+Participants should behave naturally as they do not know they are being watched, therefore results are valid
Do Overt / Covert Observations have Demand Characteristics/Observer Effects?
Overt:
- Observer effects will occur as participants know they are being observed and therefore may alter their behaviour to fit with the aim leading to demand characteristics.
Covert:
+ Observer effects should not occur as participants do not know they are being observed, and therefore should not alter their behaviour to fit with the aim, therefore reducing demand characteristics
Are Overt / Covert Observations Practical?
Overt:
+ Practical as the researcher can easily take down observation notes as they are not hiding the fact they are observing
Covert:
-May be impractical as the researcher will not be able to openly take observation notes down as they are hiding the fact that they are observing.
Are Overt / Covert Observations Ethical?
Overt:
+Ethical as researcher can gain full consent from participants to take part in the research since they are aware they are being observed
Covert:
- Not ethical as the researcher cannot gain informed consent from participants as they are undercover
What are Participant Observations?
The researcher takes an active role in the situation being observed.
What are Non-Participant Observations?
The researcher observes behaviour of others, but does not form part of the group they study.
Are Participant/Non-Participant Observations Reliable?
Participant:
+ May lack reliability as the impact of the observer may vary depending on their personality and behaviour, therefore replication with a different observer may lead to different results
Non-Participant:
+Fairly reliable as the observer’s influence will not vary on replication as they are not involved, leading to consistent findings on replication.
Are Participant/Non-Participant Observations Valid?
Participant:
+Valid as the observer will be part of the group and so will gain a deep insight into the reasons for their behaviour
Non-Participant:
- Lacks validity as the observer will be an outsider so they may not gain a deep insight into the reasons for behaviour
Will the researcher in a Participant/Non-Participant Observation be Objective?
Participant:
- Lacks objectivity as the researcher is part of the group so they may become too involved in activities and fail to draw objective conclusions
Non-Participant:
+ Objective as the researcher remains separate from the group so they will not become involved and they can draw objective conclusions
Are Participant/Non-Participant Observations Practical?
Participant:
-Not practical as it may be difficult for the researcher to note down their observations while they are taking part in group activities
Non-Participant:
+ Practical as it will be easy for the researcher to make observation notes as they are not taking part in group activities
What is the Content Analysis method?
This method is typically used as a research tool to examine media content and see how common particular words, images, themes or concepts are. It is typically used for media content such as advertisements, books, films, newspapers, music videos etc.
For example, the researcher might look at how common gender stereotyping is in children’s books.
How is a Content Analysis Conducted?
- The researcher would have to start with a research question – i.e. what do they want to find out about. The question should be quite specific so that it is easy to conduct the content analysis.
- Create categories based on what is presented in the content. These categories should be based on what the purpose of the research is e.g for an analysis of gender roles in the home, you might have the categories of breadwinner (female), breadwinner (male), housewife, househusband. Etc and so you test those categories in a pilot study. (You could test for inter-rater reliability (if there is good inter-rater reliability, it means that more than one researcher agrees with the categories)
- Select a sample of the material to be analysed – this might be for pilot purposes (when you test out your categories) So maybe 4 newspapers or music videos or films will be assessed for their content
- Take a larger sample and take a tally on how many times the categories are being emphasised – this is your real content analysis so you will want to take a larger sample
- You would then analyse your findings – look for trends, make graphs, you could try to find more themes within your findings.
What are the Strengths of Content Analyses?
Ethics: They are ethical, as data is collected from existing sources rather than live ppts
Useful: It offers the opportunity for a fresh interpretation of existing data, which may not be achieved via other methods
It’s useful for analysing historical material + documenting trends over time
Reliability: Reliability can be easily assessed as the content analysis can be easily replicated with the same sources
What are the Weaknesses of Content Analyses?
Subjectivity: A content analysis is a purely descriptive method; so it’s subject to bias
I.V: The categories used should represent what they intend to measure, otherwise the data won’t be valid
May be limited by the availability of material
Observed trends may not reflect reliability
What is the Learning Key Question?
Is there a link between viewing violence in the media and aggressive behaviour?
What would it mean to society if viewing violence in the media does have a link to aggressive behaviour?
Violence portrayed by role models will leads to increased violence
More tax payers money will be needed to spend on solving crimes
Young people are largely affected by the media, as they are still learning
Governments have a big responsibility to regulate media / reduce violent context
What would it mean to society if viewing violence in the media does not have a link to aggressive behaviour?
Current regulations (watershed) aren’t helpful. (Limit freedom?)
Violence in society should be attributed to other causes (ignored by government) Mental health issues hindered by poverty
Government should try to improve society in other ways to reduce violence (reducing inequality)
How do Learning Theories suggest a Link between Media Violence + Aggression?
SLT: Individuals pay attention in the media (e.g. Rocky). They retain/remember the violence (e.g. the fighting), and later imitate/copy the violence (e.g. get into a fight)
Vicarious Reinforcement: If they see a character in the film receiving status from violent behaviour, they may copy in the hope of receiving the same rewards (e.g. James Bond glamourises violence)
Characters in TV are more likely to be chosen as role models as they are charismatic, good-looking and have a high status
Violent behaviour is positively reinforced through the concept such as gaining points through assaulting players (GTA)
Bandura 1961: Strong evidence that children can learn aggressive behaviour through SLT. It is a standardised procedure and has high i.validity
How do Learning Theories suggest no Link between Media Violence + Aggression?
Charlriton’s study suggests there is no link between violence in the media and aggressive behaviour. Violent behaviour on the island of Saint Helena did not increase after television was added. (Naturalistic observation)
However, this research is weak evidence because the island is a small population that’s not generalisable
Catharsis is the process of releasing and providing relief from repressed emotions. Video games act as a form of catharsis, and reduce the likelihood of people actually acting violently in real life
Biological psychologists have found a gene that is more common in violent criminals. (Thing is, does this take away responsibility?)
What is the Title of the Learning Practical?
Naturalistic observation of gender differences in pro social behaviour in a shop
What is the Background Information surrounding the Learning Practical?
SLT: we observe something, then we retain it, reproduce it with the motivation to do so
Eagly (2009): Women + men both show similar amounts of pro-social behaviour (PSB), but they show different types of PSB.
Leslie, Snyder + Glomb: Women dominate more - e.g. women are more likely to give up their seat on public transport
What is the Aim of the Learning Practical?
To investigate whether males or females show more pro social behaviour in a shop or supermarket, by thanking the shopping assistant.
What is the IV + DV of the Learning Practical?
IV: Gender
Operationalised through judging people as male (XY) or female (XX), through physical appearance + clothes
DV: Pro/Non-Pro Social Behaviour: Defined as-
Pro: talkative + approachable, respectful to society; thanking
Non-Pro: not as talkative, and not as respectful; not thanking
What is the Null Hypothesis of the Learning Practical?
There will be no significant difference between male + female politeness and pro-social behaviour (shown through thanking), and any difference will be due to chance.
What is the Alternative Hypothesis of the Learning Practical (non-directional)?
There will be a difference between male + female pro-social behaviour; however the gender difference with more PSB is unknown.
What is the Experimental Design of the Learning Practical ?
Independent Measures
They only experience one level of the IV (gender)
What type of Sampling will be used in the Learning Practical?
Opportunity Sample
It’s the easiest/least time consuming way to do it; it’s just whoever’s in the shop
What types of Observation is used in the Learning Practical?
Naturalistic: It’s in a shop environment
Non-Participant: We’re not being participants
Covert: The participants are unaware of what’s going on
What Controls were used in the Learning Practical?
We’d have to separate and act like we’re just shopping, to reduce DC
We’ll work in pairs in the shop, to increase inter-rate reliability
We’ll observe both male and female check out assistants
What type of data will be collected in the Learning Practical (quantitative and/or qualitative)?
Qualitative Data: What they say
Quantitative Data: Keeping a tally of pro/non-pro social behaviour with each gender
What Practical Decisions are made during the Learning Practical?
The apparatus used were phones
We will exclude recording certain people that passes through the check out - e.g. large groups, people on the phone - as other factors would be affecting their behaviour
Which Ethical Guidelines were Kept during the Learning Practical?
Competence: we are psychology students aware of pro-social behaviour + learning psychology
Psychological Harm: Nothing within the experiment will cause harm
Which Ethical Guidelines were Broken during the Learning Practical?
Informed Consent: None was given, due to it being a covert observation
Debriefieing: There was no debrief
Right to Withdraw: There was no right
Deception: Even though they weren’t tricked into thinking a different aim, this is a bad thing as the ppts still weren’t aware of the aim
What was the Procedure of the Learning Practical?
We positioned ourselves to be in separate places, as we were doing a covert observation + didn’t want to increase the chances of any demand characteristics
In total, we observed 7 male + 7 female shoppers. We gathered qualitative data by asking notes on what they may have said ad how they behaved, and gathered quantitative data by tallying everytime someone said “thank you”
What were the Results of the Learning Practical?
5 out of the 7 males showed PSB of thanking the shop assistant. 2 did not.
3 out of the 7 females showed PSB of thanking the shop assistant. 4 did not.
What was the Conclusion of the Learning Practical?
Males show more PSB than females.
This may be due to SLT whereby males + females may learn gender typical behaviours towards shop assistants, through observing/retaining/reproducing politeness within a shop.
This research is inconsistent with previous research from Leslie, Snyder + Glomb, who suggested that women are more dominant and more likely to do polite things
What were the Strengths of the Learning Practical?
Reliability: The quantitative data of tallying how many people said “thank you” is standardised
Practical Application
Ecological Validity: A shop is a naturalistic environment
What were the Weaknesses of the Learning Practical?
Generalisability: The sample size was only 14
Internal Validity: There was no way of controlling extraneous variables (eg. emotions previous to entering the shop)
What Improvements could be made from the Learning Practical?
Observing on different days
Observing for a longer time period
