social 2 Flashcards
first social experiment
norman triplett social facilitation
1897 fishing line study
floyd henry allports book and significance
1924
emphasized importance of experimentation
wants to study groups by studying the individual
what did henry murray do
1838 created personality theory where both situations and dispositions influence behaviour
what is social memory
how we store information relavent to ourselves and others
increases self and other understanding, inform opinions and navigate new situations
info is stored in associative networks in a semantic memory model with spreading activation
replication crisis - statistics
39% studies replicate in psychology
54% that don’t are in the top journals
ego depletion and replication
- one of the most studied but mass replications have seen small/no effects
- implications for other research
-unsure if it replicates - roy baumeister
structural equation modelling
maps out complex relations between variables to make a model that fits data -> non exploratory. test confirms whether you are right or wrong
quasi experiments
groups cannot be manipulated, it is unethical or are naturally occuring (smoker, woman etc)
lack of control , predispositions or ind diffs may affect causes
IAT - purpose, eval, d-score
implicit association
dscore: positive values = congruent bias (white good black bad) neg values = incongruent (w bad b good)
estimated by reaction times
- makes assumptions, forces categorisation →
- may prime participants with stereotypes rather than assess them
- some targets may not have appropriate comparisons
2011 daryl bem
feeling the future -> precognition (predicting future)
proved wrong by simmons and colleagues - false positive psychology
diederik stapel
58 puplications removed
brian nosek
leader and cofounder of open science and led several replication efforts
self presentation theory
we adapt to fit into situations - present ourselves to make good impressions with impression management and self monitoring
inflating self esteem
positive illusions can be beneficial → slight distortions can improve psychological well-being
but may lead to narcissism, lacking empathy and academic failure
-> cultural differences, some asain and interdependent countries do not have concept of self esteem or has borrowed from other cultures
gilbert and hixon 1991
semantic networks about cultural stereotypes - areas were more easily activated
payne 2001 weapons id task
gun vs tools
incongruent pairings harder to categorise - black tool vs white gun
motivation continuum key points
automatic processes
subliminal priming - without realising
conscious priming - thinking of old good boss - positive about new
chronic readiness - habitual activation
goal inconsistent automacity - failed thought suppression
goal driving automacity - conscious choice for auto process
intent
will
self reference effect
easier to remember self referent words as they are processed through self schemas
extrinsic vs intrinsic motivations
e - behaviour driven by rewards/situation, not reflective of self, less likely to repeat
i - self interest, no explicit reward, reflects self
multiple selves
actual
ideal
ought
self discrepancy theory
when selves don’t align, can lead to mh problems
goal of evaluative conditioning and method
- aims to replace or create new links between concepts in memory. principles of classical conditioning
- coactivates emotional stimuli and target stimuli
- the idea that we create a more positive gut reaction
- used in stigmatized groups and alcohol
- done by creating associations over and over until it becomes ingrained - can be completely unrelated concepts (like cats and salad leading to pos attitudes about healthy eating)
- low ecological validity but it can tell us about how similar links form through life (i.e don’t see cats and salad by there are associative links between the pub and laughing/having a good time)
elaboration likelihood model what is it
when people accept or reject arguments depending on diff levels of elaborations (consistency with self-schema / knowledge)
- central routes of persuasion - using evidence and logic
- peripheral - highly emotional (fear) and changes associations in memory
to change attitudes
when are different methods of persuasion most effective
central - for strongly ingrained behaviours - utilise logical arguments to change behaviour, it still may be met with high elaboration if counters attitudes
peripheral - for negative behaviours like binge drinking - hanxiety
who made cog dissonance and example
leon festinger
classic study: brought Ps into lab, said something had gone wrong and they now needed to do a boring, hour long cog task, then told them to say to the next P that it was exciting. they were bribed with either $1 or $20. the idea is that when we lie about something/do something that doesn’t match our feelings we will change our attitude to match that.
self perception theory - how we get an SP
daryl bem used cog dis theory for this- there is no change in attitudes do to uncomfortable states or arousal. instead self perception theory says our own behaviour is a basis for inference for our self schema. this depends on whether behaviour is intrinsically or externally motivated
priming petzel and noel 2020
participants were primed with either social drinking or driving safety and then answered an IAT test, these attitudes lead to a changed amount of cravings
may activate nearby concepts to alter perception using the semantic network model and spreading activation
ape model definition
(associative vs propositional learning)
- is how attitudes are represented in memory - idea is that people respond neg/pos to attitude based objects based on feelings (affective) or the propositions that come to mind when confronted with an object. these reactions are then evaluated with validity by examining is reactions are consistent with other knowledge
- global attitudes do not need to be stored in memory, only the affect and beliefs associated with objects that serve as input to an expressed attitude
info from experts - ape
- more trust in central routes
- Debono and harnish 1998: used cheerleader calendar arguments for/against. stronger arguments had higher trust and less elaborations. expert was also rated as more trustworthy
- strong arguments can be enough to change attitudes however experts may change attitudes even in weak arguments
associative vs propositional information/learning
a - linking when two stimuli are frequently paired. it creates semantic links and hebbian law - neurons that fire together wire together. involves:- Co-activation of concept
- Spontaneous emotional response (captured via implicit measures)
- Can be rejected (if you have the energy)
p - when mental links are elaborated upon and requires conscious effort. it is the creation of causal relations between associations and the attempt to validate them. has: validation and explanation of associations, associations are further strengthened (if validated) and More deliberate judgments (require energy, captured via self-report
role of power and samples in the replication crisis
underpowered - 20ps used to be norm - false positives
stop collection when hypoth met - under full sample
removing “outliers” - ps not consistent with hyptoh
role of design in the replication crisis
lying by omission - dropping conditions that did not work
dropped dv’s not consistent with predictions
exploratory covarietes - artificially creating significant p-values
replication crisis and stanford prison experiment
guards told how to act and knew true aim
soft guards instructed to toughen up
no one believed they were in a prison
experiment stolen from student
zimbardo wanted to prove that prisons were bad for prisoners
banauzizi and movahedi (1975) - showed ps most likely performed to demand characteristics
issues with social experiments
ecological validity
confederates aren’t actors
ethics -> adressing stigma, must model phenomena rather than face-to-face
issues with implicit and explicit operationalisations
- implicit deliver different results - social desirability influences self report
- however, implicit attitudes are not always more accurate as each measure taps into different kinds of information, instead it likely predicts unique types of behaviour (automatic or controlled)
process model of self control
controlling behaviour shifts motivation away from further control
motivation temporarily shifted towards rewarding behaviours. this idea is that resources aren’t depleted just redirected and fatigue leads to reward seeking
strength model of self control
self control is limited, use like a muscle and can become fatigued
attitude definition
cog representation that summarises the evaluation of an attitude object such as a belief, the self, others, action etc. it’s my OPINIONNNNN
components of attitudes
affective - emotional content, amplified with strong confidence
behavioural - embodiment (own posture, movement expression changes judgement)
cognitive - facts and beliefs
role of experts in persuasion
cheerleader calendar experiment debono and harnish
info from experts elicit lower elabpration and instills more trust in central routes
stronger arguments had higher trust and less elaboration
expert = more trustworthy
what is social identity theory
tajfel 1971
start with self categorization (member of group)
derive self esteem from this, share opinions with group for validation
define outgroups and develop belief outgroup is inferior
stereotype vs prejudice vs discrimination
s - impressions of groups - cog
p - pos or neg evaluations - affective
d - pos or neg behaviour towards group members - behavioural
what defines accessibility of social identity
direct reminders
presence of outgroup
outnumbered by outgroup
intergroup conflict
self esteem hypothesis in social identity theory
bask in reflective glory - group wins cialdini
hide own failures behind group wins
make up/down comparisons to protect self esteem
in groups vs outgroups
seen in perceptual estimation task- brewer and weber 1994
answer is either majority or minority
if in majority -> feel threatened by maj good performance and make downward comparison when maj performance bad
reversed for minority
outgroup homogeneity effect
see outgroup as less diverse - make interactions more constrained
need more interaction
often, pay attention to characteristics that match up
remember same race more as shop clerk
park and rothbart 1892 - see other sororities as more similar
categorization competiton hypothesis
social identity theory
- viewing people in terms of in and out groups is sufficient to generate intergroup competition
- it is evidenced by minimal group paradigms
- competition between groups seems innate and this may be an evolutionary function
realistic group conflict theory
compete when resources are tight
robbers cave - wanting to max profits for ingroups even if it takes away from others
one winner one loser mentality (zero sum)
application: women in STEM takes away from men
intergroup threat theory
bias stems from
symbolic threat: loss of status/power - undermines sources of self identity and esteem
realistic: loss of physical resources such as money (women taking jobs) or land (immigration)
forms of discrimination
blatent - unequal, harmful treatment intentionally
subtle - less obvious, may be active or passive such as humour
theory of planned behaviour and discrimination
idea that behaviour is complex and rarely rational, such as discrimination, and difficult to control voluntarily
prejudice alone is not enough for discrimination
need social norms
and perceived control which impacts attention/behaviour
need self control to inhibit
internal motivations to control prejudice
internal = low prej
implicit exposure to outgroups reminds commitment to equality
people high in internal motivation are more likely to recognize conflict between prejudices and actions.
from personal belief that prejudice is wrong
external motivations to control prejudice
generally not correlated with attitude prejudice
feel pressured to appear unbiased - leaves people irritated and resentful even when internally motivated
harder to engage self control when not for right reasons
(washing up dilemma)
more likely for p to “leak out” through automatic processes or body language when trying to control other effects
motivations for social categorisation
social identity
realistic group conflict
intergroup threat
intersectionality of social categorization
people belong to >1 SC at once - older black women
issues in research - normally focus one 1
subtypes can make category more pos or neg
bottom up vs top down processes to categorization
BU - prototypicality is festest, use body cues (shape) and ambiguous cues lead to lower status/minority categorizations
TD - stereotypes, situational influence (what makes the person look diff) and prejudiced attitudes (pay attention to what is consistent with those beliefs)
how do stereotypes influence categorization
freeman 2010
people make assumptions that gay men have more feminine features etc. when someone is ambiguous and we are slow to categorise we tend to rely on stereotypes. the more masculine men and feminine women were rated as looking gay)
origins of sterotypes
social role theory - associate role with those who occupy, have correspondence bias - behaviour due to personality not situation
illusory correlation - incorrectly linking two traits because you have seen them before (associative learning ape)
media and ads perpetuate
self fulfilling prophecy
cognitive busyness and stereotypes
gilbert and hixon 1991
- white students asked to think of 20 words they thought of about an asain person
- experimenter on screen they were watching in busy condition was either white or asain. had to memorise a number
- those who engaged WM during activation phase were less likely to complete words stereotypically
- stereotypes are likely to occupy working memory. WM has limited capacity
- more WM is used up = less to go on stereotypes
cognitive busyness and stereotype application
gilbert and hixon follow up
- those who engaged WM during application phase (were cognitively busy when learning about a research assistant) were more likely to use stereotypes when faced with the research assistants race
- working memory is needed to inhibit application
-> CB inhibits activation, but once activated, CB facilitates apllication
what activates stereotypes
priming - seen in faster responses to racial stereotypes
automaticity - subliminal cues may activate
prototypicality
issues with intersectional invisibility
black women are not seen as prototypical of either women or black people → sesko and biernet 2010: perceivers had more difficulty distinguishing between new and old faces of black women more than any other category
- may mean sterotypes aren’t activated as much
- but may increase stigma
self control and sterotypes - petzel
petzel - role of controlled processes in the promotion of racial bias after viewing alcohol related cues
fatigued = more stereotypical errors
stereotypes strongly activated in memory = errors
myopia - when behaviour is based on immediate readily available info. long term consequence not considered in favour of preservation. happens due to fatigue, alcohol
petzel 2022 and self control
fatigued students more likely to categorize a tool as a weapon when primed with a black face
need self control to reduce bias
what is stereotype rebound
consequence of suppressing stereotypes
told not to think about something - comes back in greater strength
perspective taking and bias
when done well - more pos attitudes about outgroup, less implicit and explicit bias
see experience overlap - strengthens associations
may backfire with very strong attitudes
racial bias - perspective taking improved implicit/automatic evaluations
because of ape model - PT activates more positive associations and increases connectedness - pos self evals transfer to group
elaboration liklihood model - peripheral routes
collective action approach to reducing bias
petzel 2024
1 - perspective taking and emphasising perceived injustices - helps implicit
2 - blaming men - motivation to take action vias guilt - explicit
van zomeran precursors to collective action - perceived injustices, relevance to social identity and self-confidence
elaboration model, and ape model on gender bias
ELM - central routes - expert info (blame men)
peripheral - promotion of empathy and perspective
APE - change propositional beliefs to change associations to women in science. cognitive dissonance breaks down beleifs over time
contact hypotheses and conditions for positive contact in bias
a - support of authority
b - high acquaintance potential - promote intimate contact
c - equal status interactions
d - conditions of cooperative interdependence
application and limitations of contact hypothesis for reducing bias
a- desegregating classrooms - makes cooperative learning groups, increased interaction
l - contact not always effective for highly biased ppl, ppl have terror management issues
how does contact reduce bias
personalization - see outgroup as individuals, less boundaries
salient categorisation - positive attitudes to individual will only improve group connection if individual is seen as representative
common ingroup identity - may regroup and united, but need to be wary that groups expect the other to assimilate to them
what are macro social influences
large scale forces that influence life courses
- gov policy
- culture
- historical legacies
religion
- corporations
birth location predicts survival - sierra leone = 72% vs japan’s 96% chance of reaching 5
how to measure ses and social capital
SES = health and lifespan longer. in students - pick rung on ladder and predicts % of colds they have
soc cap - relationships as resources, increases health- community engagement, trust, diversity
loneliness and mortality
one of largest predictors of death - luo et al 2012
social and gender issues and effect of health
lifestyle differs - women - childbirth, rape, dv, inequalities, beauty standards, social role
constructs of masculinity - men have shorter lifespan, sterotype to be tough, have risky behaviour
socialization and gender differences in mental rotation
men better - blame bio
NOT true
mens advantage can be eliminated by training girls with building blocks and videogames
gendered play times explain differences in rotation and emotionality. supports stereotypes
racism and health
access to system - levels of communication due to language barrier
racism related stress - activates HPA exis - high bp blood sugar and cortisol. makes blunted stress response and chronic inflammation
overlap with low SES and behavioural adaptation (substance use)
race effects working environment - e.g ses and manual labour
inherited epigenetic change - sickle cell anemia
pain threshold - medical/childbirth
children - less antibiotic prescriptions and respiratory diagnoses
racism and housing discrimination
redlining - where black people lived - prevented access to mortgages, less funding
areas have nearly double diesel exhaust particles, less green space (respiratory issues), premature births from stress, nutrient and heat
stigma and health
stereotype threat - people scared to conform to neg stereotypes - higher cardiovascular reactivity and disengagement
vick et al (2008) - stereotype threat impacts physiology. when told that men did better - women had small increase and men had very decreased blood pressure. but when told they perform the same - women’s blood pressure is reduced but men’s is much higher
environment and stereotype saliency studies
- Cheryan et al 2009 study 1 - when women were in a computer science classroom, had less interest in the subject when environment was stereotypically masculine (star trek) vs neutral
petzel - performance can be altered by gendered metaphors
costs of stereotype threat
self control failure - substance use etc, or hand grip reduced when told about gender prejudice
daily hassles - stress is additive so worse when starting off with prejudice
burnout - exhaustion and depletion of emotional and physical resources. leads to pessimism and demonstrating negative/detached attitudes
links between self control failure, stress and other psychological theories
stress = fatigue
self control failure = poor decisions
ego depletion - substance, unhealthy behaviours
APE - easy way out
issues with attitude measurement social neuroscience
petzel 2024 - self report gives much higher support for gender equality initiatives than implicit measures
social desirability
what is the social brain
fundamental need to belong - faciliates groups
baumeister and leary 1995 - need to belong leads to ill effects when not satisfied
loneliness and mortality link
components of social brain - self awareness, tom, threat detection and self regulatory mechanisms
TMS and TDCS
tms - magnetic coil induces voltage to tissue, useful in addiction studies, deactivates cortical areas but not good spatial accuracy
tcds - anode and cathode to send currents between. can boost memory focus etc to decrease depression
reducing prejudice through brain stimulation
sellaro 2015
using tcds
mpfc can counteract stereotype activation
dehumanisation and and social neuroscience
outgroups not beleived to share basic human features
FFA - dehumanising = less activation not none so shows not seeing other as equal and not having motivation to process them as such
more FFA activity - more effort needed to process
EEG social neuroscience
combined activity from neurons
good temporal poor spatial resolution
to detect changes in emotion, motivation, arousal
measuring motivation - use alpha frequencies and difference in activity between left and right frontal lobes. greater left activation = approach, greater right = inhibition
self control and social neuroscience
after self control is exercised - participants viewed pos vs neg images and reward motivations.
increased relative left frontal cortical activity when fatigued - supports process model of self control.
stress increases motivation towards positive, rewarding stimuli and shifts in motivation undermine inhibition and self-control
erps and erns in eeg
event related potentials - electrical response post stimulus - remove noise by averaging trials
error related negativity - linked to self control. neg deflection seen 50-80ms after response. seen in oh shit responses - greater amplitude after error
eeg and detection of unintentional racial bias
black/gun error - high erp’s realising racism
replicated in erns
larger ern seen in high Internal motivators with low Ems → shows that people who have strong internal motivations will sacrifice resources to try and be less prejudiced
what does N170 do
area fires 170ms after viewing stimuli
is a component of the event-related potential (ERP) that reflects the neural processing of faces, familiar objects etc
higher amplitude = higher processing
n170 and race
n170s were larger to ingroup white faces than black, but only when told to attend to race. but when asked to attend to unique identity - more attended to black faces. suggests that attending to identity may lead to preferential recruitment of cog resources for outgroup members. race can differentially impact processing at early stages
what is a diurnal cortisol curve
graph that shows cortisol levels through the day
prolonged stress = higher cortisol
can indicate health of HPA system
what is industrial and organisational psych
i - involves job analysis, legal issues, motivation etc - is day to day
o - more academic based and focuses of diversity, individual diffs, structure culture and change
what is the scientist practitioner model and issues with it
sp - use scientific method as basis for knowledge generation and development of intervention such as medical/clinical field
issues - lack of data due to student samples, little reward for research and real world time issues
hawthorne effect
when a subject’s behavior changes due to being observed or studied, rather than as a result of an intervention
makes it difficult to study worker efficiency
human capital
skills, expertise wellbeing etc of workforce - is the point of OI
must balance this with cost and efficiency
advantages and challenges of teamwork in the workplace
a - better decisions, info sharing, motivation and flexibility
c - needs resources, social loafing and group think (not analysing issues bc want harmony) and polarisation (rabbit hole)
how to create a good team
5cs - conflict res, cooperate, coordinate, communicate and comfort
use roles
design based on task type, diversity and high task interdependence
transformational leadership theory
form - inspiring a group to pursue goals and attain results. builds and communicates a clear vision, empowers followers to make transformations
Leaders instil confidence and high self-expectations
transactional leadership - through allocation of rewards/consequences in exchange for behaviors
More effective if clear goals and expectations, constant monitoring of performance, and consistency
Laissez-faire Leadership:
Non-leadership, where responsibility is deflected and followers are on their own
Only linked to negative outcomes
leader-member exchange theory
dyadic relationship between leaders and followers. Does not assume that the leader has the same relationship with each “follower”
ingroup - high quality relationship from competence skill and similarity
outgroup- formal relationship and given routine tasks
