developmental 2 Flashcards
baltes model of development - what are the 3 influences
normative age graded influences (starting school ,puberty)
normative history graded influences (ww2, natural disaster)
non normative life events (divorce, injury, lottery)
bronfenbrenners ecological model of human dev and the 4 nested settings
microsystem - what they experience in given setting - childs home
mesosystem - links across settings that individual participants in - childs home affects school performance
exosystem - links to settings the individual does not directly participate in - mothers work affecting behaviour and parental care
macrosystem - pattern of ideology and organisation in society/subculture - parent work environment affected by hours, pay etc in society
tomasello and humans vs apes
1999 - dif between humans and apes is that humans understand others are intentional agents like the self
this facilitates joint attention and imitative learning
2 year old children better than chimps and orangutans at social cognitive skills
evolutionary dev and play differences
young female chimpanzees more likely to carry rocks/stick dolls than males. does not necessarily mean the behaviour is innate in humans. we have vastly different societies, it may be an imitation of tool use too (females use more tools)
types of influences on development
normative - happens to everyone
individual
age graded - puberty
smith and thelan 2003
babies could complete the A not B task when stood up at 10months old
when do infants first start focusing on inner features, and application
2 months
hainline 1998 - may help them focus on most important stimuli
can recog mother 14days but not if wearing a hairnet
adult mechanisms in facial recognition
- disproportional inversion effect - much better at upright faces, stronger effect for face vs non face
have holistic processing - info from whole face
susilo 2013 face perception
positive association between age are facial recog abilities - supporting late maturation hypoth
williams syndrome and prosopagnosia
will - process faces atypically and have prolonged face gaze
pros - face blindness due to damage/abnormalities in right fusiform gyrus
pascalis 2002 and monkey faces
6m can tell between different human and monkey faces
not at 9m - only if early exposure - due to synaptic pruning
pascalis and face space
idea that there’s an FS framework. new faces are encoded in terms of deviation from the norm face
age 5 -> ya capabilities
explains other race effect - “they all look the same”
infants innate system may initially play a role inbiasing the newborns visual system towards faces in their environment, but nurture is implicated in all aspects of the development
other race effect
adults are poorer at discriminating faces of other races compared to own. 3m olds, not newborns, prefer own race
sangrigoli 2005 looked at korean adults that had a white adopted family, more accurate with white faces
uses of face perception
detect species, sex, race, identity/recognise, mood and state, intent and truthfulness
evidence for innate facial recog
fantz 1961 showed that babies 1-15wks preferred more complex image - scrambled and normal faces > black head
goren et al 1975 - used moving stimuli and newborns tracked schematic face more than other two
evidence for empiricist facial recog - over time
- johnson et al 1991 - replication
- by 3 months no longer track faces more
- created johnson and morton 2 process model
- CONSPEC: Early system (subcortical structures) biases infants to orient towards faces
- CONLEARN: Later taken over by more mature system (visual cortex) and more precise recognition
crookes and mckone facial development
face-specific perceptual development theory - FP develops into late childhood due to experience - allowing more coding of novel faces or more exact comparison to distractors at retreival
holistic processing develops - with strong perceptual info across the face and processing second-order info (such as spacing between features)
counter is face space
qual vs quant chnage on faces
no qual change from age 5 to adulthood (inversion effects, attractiveness, other race and how young children can encode novel face after 1 trial)
quant - early maturity of holistic processing rather than ongoing development
adult levels of holistic processing are present in early childhood - qualitatively present; quantitatively at adult strength
3 core executive functions
- inhibition - ability to control attention/behaviour/thoughts/emotion and override a prepotent response
- working memory - holding info in the mind whilst also processing and manipulating
- cognitive flexibility - changing perspectives/approaches to a problem, flexibly adjusting to new demands/rules/priorities
diamond 2002 inhibition
more time can help children compute and reach right answer
allows the prepotent response to race to the response threshold then fade, allowing the correct response to follow through
subthalamic nucleus prevents premature response
inhibitory control through development
rapid growth in childhood - 30% button pressing accuracy ages 3-6
early life inhibition predicts health in adolescence and adulthood
Growth curve modelling – Continued maturation of error-processing abilities supports protracted development of inhibitory control over adolescence.
can also decline in older age - seen in worse scores at inhibiting visual distractions and ability to suppress irrelevant info
development of working memory
WM relies on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex , whereas just holding info in mind (short term mem) does not
1 item at 6m, 3-4 age 1
no comparable tasks for infants and adults
can use BDS (backwards digit span) - is incredibly difficult for children, cannot get past three digits
what is cognitive flexibility
one aspect is ability to change spatial perspectives or interpersonal perspectives (to do this we need to inhibit previous perspective and activate a dif one with WM. CF also seen in thinking outside the box, being able to adjust to demands, take opportunity and admit you’re wrong
dimensional card sort test
1996
cognitive flexibility
by age 4, child can sort into colour or shape, but when the rules change to the other dimension they keep making the same mistake of the first rule
wisconsin card task
cognitive flexibility
more difficult - task for the participant is to deduce the correct sorting criterion on the basis of feed- back and to flexibly switch sorting rules when- ever the experimenter gives feedback that criterion has changed.
younger children and older adults tend to excercise EFs reactively, but older children and younger adults are more planful and anticpatory
7-21 year olds - shift costs decreasing with each age group but 15 yo do not differ from adults
links between executive functions
more complex - harder to isolate
spatial stroop to separate - minimal demands on memory
- n order to be flexible have to inhibit
- describes as a melting pot of executive function
- new model is a domain general function of inhibition that can drive the others
factor models of executive function
wu et al 2011 - 3 factor model of shifts, wm and inhibition in children ages 7-11
also 2 and 4 factor loadings
too many tests - hard to pinpint specific skills being assessed
tower of hanoi and executive function
- children <4 predicted by inhibition, >4 predicted by working memory
- there is conceptual abiguity
- leads to perseveration - giving a response that is appropriate for a previous set of rules but no longer appropriate under the prevailing rule
maturation of the PFC
- progressive change - myelination, synaptogenesis etc
- regressive change - cell death, pruning, less gm
- physical maturation of the frontal lobe parallels the advances in cognitive abilities throughout childhood and adolescence
what is neural proliferation
neurons multiply at very fast rate, most active in prenatal dev
development of the PFC
6-12m - increases in dendritic trees in layer III - more connection and communication
12-18m - peak in synaptogenesis in middle frontal gyrus
synaptogenesis in PFC in first decade of life sees reduction in synapses in AD and adulthood
grey matter in development, giedd et al 1999 and gogtay et al 2004
g99 - gm increases in frontal and parietal, peaks age 10 girls 12 boys then decreases
g04 - loss of GM density starting at puberty in the sensorimotor areas, and then spreading over the frontal cortex (rostrally) and the parietal and then temporal cortex (caudally)
loss of grey matter in dorso lateral pfc
loses gm fast
maturation in structural and metabolic changes in 1st year
late maturation to frontal lobe compared to others
what is fNIRS for
measure changes of concentration of oxy and doexy haemoglobinin response to stimuli
to link prf and executive functions
functional connectivity of the pfc
children display weaker functional connectivity between the lateral pFC, ACC, inferior parietal cortex during cognitive flexibility tasks.
- At 3yo: Weak neural interactions within the frontal cortex and unrefined frontoparietal connectivity
- At 4.5yo: Stronger neural connections and a refined pathways with efficient connectivity
→ this confirms the involvement of the PFC in the early EF and the PFC doesnt work in isolation
qualitative vs quantitative change in executive function
qual
englehart et al 2009 - overlapped areas but still distinct different areas in activation
quant
13-14 year olds there is diffusion of connectivity across the brain - there is dense and unrefined spread of activity which reduces with age. this is because there are more efficient connections
langauge definition
subset of communication (transmission)
comprehension of words and sentences to convey ideas and information
what did noam chomsky say about human language
believed human language is a system of remarkable complexity and that our brains were designed to absorb and acquire language
broad and narrow faculties of language
b - inference, navigation, TOM, exec function, control
n - speech, hierarchical system, syntax, pragmatics
components of language
- phoneme - smallest unit that when changed, changes the meaning of the word
- phonetics is the production and perception of speech sounds in any language
- phone - speech sound (letters and sounds)
3 aspects of pragmatics
- langauge for diff purposes, they is said changes response
- change according to needs of situation or listener
- following rules, taking turns, on topic
world learning biases - language
whole object constraint - assuming words refer to whole object rather than its parts
shape bias - will generalise words to similar shape objects for noun learning
barrett’s multi route model of lanaguage
use referential words - in many contexts such as “more”
context bound worlds - only used in a specific context such as “duck” when playing in the bath. these words are mapped onto the global construction of the event and gradually analysed into individual categories (such as ducks in the park and duck beneath something)
gleitmans syntactic boot strapping hypothesis
- we are sensitive to syntactic and semantic correspondences from an early age
- we extract meanings of new words from syntactic clues
- can understand a new object such as a “ball” and what it does from its place in a sentence
development of speecg
12-18m - one world stage
18m - 50 words
18-22m - function words
18-14 - two words
24m+ longer utterances and grammar
4yo - over-regularization (runned not ran)
social relationships and developmental language disorder
difficulties understanding and using language
breakdown of communication - may understand but not have words/skills to response
children negotiate through play
what is scln
speech, language and communication needs
may be speech sounds, clarity, sentences, listening or conversational issues
SCLN stats
- 10% children of all children have long term scln
- 7% of all children have scln
- 1% children have severe and complex scln
pros and cons of baby sign
doherty sneddon
acredolo and goodwyn created this
pros- larger and expressive vocab, mental dev, reduction in frustration tantrums and better relations. also benefits children with learning difficulties (competence, intelligibility and speech dev)
cons - benefits to deaf children not methologically sound, not scientific (anecdotal), need better controls
what is the object concept
object permanence - objects will continue to exist out of sight
this requires mental representation - which is planning and deferred imitation (a not b error until 12m but can search for objectd at 8-9m)
what are the substages of the sensorimotor stage
reflex activity (innate)
primary circular reactions 1-4m
secondary circular reactions 4-10m
coordination of secondary circular reactions 10-12m
tertiary circular reactions 12-18m
internal representation 18-24m
what are primary and secondary circular reactions
p - 1-4m, simple behaviours from reflex, focusing on body parts and repeating behaviour, cannot differentiate self from external world
s - 4-10, own behaviours, intentionally change surroundings, connection between body and external movements
coordination of secondary circular reactions and a-not b error
10-12m,variety of actions to engage with objects, means-end behviours (moving stuff out way), not insightful trial-error(lack flexibility)
a-not-b till 12m (reward is always under a, until under b, still looks at a)
tertiary circular reactions and internal representations
t - 12-18m, still repetitive/circular behaviours, understand trial and error but not insightful, improving problem solving
ir - 28-24m, can map out world,thinking/planning actions, insight and deferred imitations
critiques of piaget
methods
observations, own children
need quant and standardised
confounds in abilities
coordination and motor planning deficits -> infants cannot perform means-end
infants have memory deficits
communication may be biased by cues
stages may be earlier - need easier procedure and dif dvs
butterworth 1977
a not b error
3 conditions -> normal (object perm), object covered, and uncovered
babies made errors in all 3 - a not b may be lack of coordination but lack of object permanence
smith and thelen 2003
a not b change
stand not sit in B trial
10m performed like 12m , standing not A less salient, children reassessed surroundings and made right choice
bower 1982
few months old infants shown object, then hide behind screen - either appears or disappears
hr shows shows surprise in empty conditions
have some knowledge of absent objects
baillargeon et al 1985
car rolling down ramp into box/through
infants understood box continued to exist (expect to stop in impossible)
as young as 5m show object permanence and supports the idea that failure on previous tests result of interaction with other cog abilities
2004 - said infants understood continuity/solidarity and 2.5m - innate/v quick
believes object permanence isnt isolated conceptual attainment (need dev of time, space and causality)
criticisms of baillargeon 1985 and 2004
indicates limited awareness, may be novelt
unsure if looking preferences really tell us about what babies know
schoner and thelen 2006 - babies in Baillargeon only looked longer at the impossible event if they saw it first and those that saw the possible event first did not reliably dishabituate to either the possible/impossible when shows
planning behaviours - clifton et al 1991, claxton et al 2003, williatts 1989
clifton et al 1991 - infants made appropriate grip to reach for object in darkness - said based on mental reps
claxton et al 2003 - 10m olds had slower reaching for precise actions - planned
williats - novel planning of actions (mental reps) 9m could move barrier and reach object on cloth
deffered imitation - meltzoff
meltzoff and moore 1994 - can repeat expression 1 day later on neutral face
meltzoff 1995 - 4 month delay, reproduce observed reaction at 14 and 16m
deferred imitation barr et al 1996 and 2007
had to repeat puppet actions after 24hrs
3 repetitions - could not
6 repetitions 6m scored sig night, some evidence for deferred
2007- replicated using videos
context and imitations
patel et al 2013
full flexibility and generalisation across contexts not given until 12m for puppet paradigm
pros and cons of piaget in object concept
- Children not born with fully developed object concept, but develop it over time
- Certain behaviours/abilities seem to emerge in similar orderno piaget
- Children develop some aspects of mental representation earlier than Piaget suggested
- ̶Contrary to the discrete stage view?
what are the 5 counting principles and who were they made by
gelam and gallistel 1978
one-to-one - one tag for each item
stage order - tags must be used in same way (not 312)
cardinal - tag of final number represents total number (9 = 9 items not 10)
order irrelevence - up/down
abstraction - can be applied to any collection of objects, including intangible ones
knowledge of coutning principles - gelman and meck 1983 statistics
3-5yolds
- ncorrect trials - one to one was 67-82% 3-4yrs, stable order have 76-96 3-4/5yrs, and cardinal had 85-99% 3-4/5yrs accuracy
- pseudo error were detected as peculiar but not incorrect with 95% + accuracy and could even say why in some cases
gelman and meck 1985 childrens knowledge
children as young as 3 had implicit knowledge of numbers
success not limited by set rate (how high), could point out come errors here
identification of errors without counting themselves show thy know in principle what it is to count but struggle putting this into practice
age 3 - struggled with stable order and jump in list - what errors they make, but spotted reversals and random numbers
cardinality easiest to detect
baroody 1984
order irrelevance and cardinality 5-7yrs
can understand that tags can be assigned but it does not imply understanding that differently ordered counts produce the same cardinal designation (total)
struggled to understand when making 8 -> 1 and counting back
45% 5 87% 7
order irrelevance comes with age, understanding overestimated
response to baroody: gelman meck and merkin 1986
failure was due to misinterpreting instructions not lack of understanding
replication gave the children 3 opportunities to count first, asked can you start with n and how many will there be
maybe choose dif answer bc think think it is wrong
give “n” and knower levels
asked to give n items
up to 4 knowers (e.g. 2 = can give 2 consistently)
after 4 - grasp cardinality and can answer flexibility and understand how counting works
wynn 1992
looking time in different maths equations - looked longer at incorrect (did not expect)
concluded 5m can calc precise results of simple operations
ex 3: 1+1 trial with final outcome being 2 or 3. infants significantly preferred the 3 option - showing surprise at an extra item
wakeley et al 2000 -> replicating wynn
controlled for idea that preferred is always higher, found not preference of correct/incorrect
inconsistent results in lit review
argues for gradual process
adding and subtracting are not innate but are competencies that develop over several years
wynn response to wakeley
blamed procedural differences for the attentiveness of infants such as computer program vs experimenter to determine start
wynn removed more fussy babies
animals and number concept
often very good at discriminating between numbers of food or defences
some evidence of counting.operations
grey parrot alex - 0 concept
cross cultural number concepts
language and counting practices impact representation and processing of numbers
number talk from parents predicts cp knowledge related to later performance in school (when talking about present small sets)
Carey 2009 innate vs learned
we have innate abilities: approx number system to estimate and discriminate, and object tracking system - track up to 3-4
learned - exact counting and arithmetic builds over time, not innate, language builds on innate systems
carey 2009 - language and gradual aquisition of language
number words - allow cardinality (total)
counting through practice
object tracking is expanded by number words
cultural experiences predict trajectory of learning
vygotsky’s view on learning
is result of interaction between child and MKO
culture provides context
language provide means for sharing
cog processes were not individual, and influenced by culture (such as schooling)
vygotsky and monologue
contrast to piaget
external monologue is important as a tool for thought to organise and plan - in inner speech at 7
piaget sees this as egocentrism
what did bruner do
create scaffolding
stages
recruitment
reducing degrees of freedom (no of steps)
direction maintenance (motivation)
marking critical features
demonstration
animals vs humans in social learning
humans have cumulative culture, bc they imitate (peel orange in spiral), chimps emulate (bit into orange, will do any way for end goal)
cultural intelligence hypothesis - have special soc-cog skills (tom, cooperation, imitation, teaching etc)
natural tendency to teach and share info
natural pedagogy
human-specific ability to learn cultural information through communication. It’s a cognitive adaptation that allows people to acquire knowledge quickly and efficiently.
a - sensitivity to ostensive signals like eye contact that indicate communication to infants
b - referential expectation (satisfied by the use of declarative gestures)
c- a biased interpretation of ostensive-referential communication as conveying relevant info
role of the child observer
children are primed to attend to demonstrator cues
children have overimitation - will follow irrelevent steps to open box
children learn through opaque technologies and arbitrary cultural customs
mirror test
lewis and brooks gun 1979
will smile and touch own nose with rouge - recognising the baby as themselves at 21 and 24 months but can develop from 15m
temporal sense of self
povinelli et al 1996
sicker on head and filmed
shown after delay - old 3 and 4yo would reach for sticker (concept of continuation)
tsos develops after 3
lewis and brooks gun 1979 social dimensions
familiarity - behave differs or strangers 7-9m and distinguish peers 10-12m
gender - discriminate 9-12, verbal labels at 19m
age - children and adults 6-12m, labels 18-24m
emotional production
few months gain primary emotions - happy, sad, interest, anger
2-3 years embarrassment pride and shame - culturally complex
recognising emotions
haviland and lelwice 1987 from 10 weeks
copy mothers happy/angry, and will chew/mouth/suck at sadness
use social referencing - choose reaction based on mothers response (falling over)
still face
tronick
highly replicated
still face for 2 mins
- baby will first look confused, then tries to get mothers attention by smiling, pointing, then cries out of frustration
- babies in the experiment often lose postural control → cns is overwhelmed
- towards end of experiment baby withdraws
prolonged still face - struggle to trust and regulate
bullied children - effect on dev
have “excessive” reactions - crying and distress
children may show joy/interest in aggressive episodes - source of interaction
mahady wilton 2000 - children who are easily aroused and struggle regulating their emotions are at higher risk of regulation dysfunction - emotional states overwhelm coping processes
what developes and combines into theory of mind
self awareness - 18-20m
expressing emotions 2yrs
capacity for pretence - 2-3- pretend something is something else
distinguishing reality from pretence 3-4yrs
these combined lead to TOM
wimmer and perner’s false belief 1983
long story about maxi’s chocolate
only answerewd correctly 4+, mostly 5-9
issue: long and complicated story, sally anne at 4
how theory of mind is developed
2+ - express wants
3+ using cog terms like know, remember, contrast reality/belief
3-4 understand means =know
3 - struggle to understand 2 dif representations at the same time
how children predict behaviour
2yo - people have desires
3rs - people have beliefs
do not understand that other people can act on incorrect belief
implicit knowledge of TOM
2-3yo might look at right place but identify wrong
some false beleif evidence from 15m
wellman et al 2001 review 180 false belief tasks - some 2, some 3 and most 4+
curse of knowledge and who is it by
birch and bloom 2007
knowledge is hard to suppress when needing answer for what someone else thinks
TOM after age 4
understand surpise at 5+
some 4 and mostly 5s will decieve - lie about sticker to robber puppet
advanced tom
osterhaus and bosacki 2022 review found individual diffs in tests were related to inhibition not empathy
two theories of tom development
conceptual change 3-5
develop concept of representation - differences of 3-4yo
understanding devs gradually
not sudden, realist tendency overrides understanding of beliefs
tasks reduce complexity/cognitive demands show success at younger ages; ongoing development and perhaps some decline on certain measures with older age
what info processing limitations do children have
computational - strategies to recieve/apply
retrieval - have strategies but retrieve wrong one
storage -> retain working memory
workspace -> limited WM items
piaget’s probability judgement
tokens in a bag
- children did not consistently pick higher frequency item
brainerd - not encoding problem, retrieval problem as children were guided by previous answer
reasons for prosociality
evolution - survival of kin
eisenberg 1983 - more likely to help family/friends/similar background
reputation/acceptance
innate - from early age
socially learned - adult responses to behaviour are important
when does helping emerge
1st birthday
issues with studying prosocial behaviour
artificial environment (donation game, explicit scaffolding and models)
no effect of modelling ps behaviour after 3 week follow up - children are looking for the right answer - may be measuring age diffs in conformity
spontaneous helping warneken and tomasello 2008 - and comparison to chimps
18m - experimenter looked at object, child then verbalised
children more likely to help when expression was for help
often immediate helping, failures only due to restrictions
chimps only helped in reaching (most pop for children)
interpreting the need for help
piaget’s moral understanding theory
premoral - up to age 4
moral realism - 4-10 inflexible rules from higher authority
moral subjectivism 10+ - mutually agreed rules, flexible
confirmed cross culturally by linaza 1984
piaget moral dilemma
which child is naughtiest - accidental or purpose, but not equal outcome (1 cup vs 12 cups)
up to 9/10 children judge based on damage not motive
issues with rules and memory demands
smetana 1981 - 5yrs can judge intention when damage is the same
kholberg stages of morality
preconven
1. authority
2. risk and benefit
conven
3. interpersonal relations
4. society as a whole, social order
postconven
5. society and rights
6. universal ethical
cultural and gender bias in kholberg
relaibility increased by standardised scoring - colby et al 1987
culture - snarey 1985 - stage 5 only urban society - bias to individualism
gender - gilligan, females is people before principles
triad of impairments autism
wing and gould 1979
social interaction -> eye contact peer relation
communication -> language and imagination
restricted repetitive patterns of behaviour -> narrow interests, routine, compulsions
problems with autism diagnosis
defined behavioural criteria
-> some signs 12-18m, typically 3+ and may be undiagnosed
increases due to diagnostic material and understanding impairments
traditional theories of autism
repetitive restricted behaviours due to impaired exec function, and correlations between this and TOM
weak central coherence -> typically dev people process incoming info globally but WCC biases for features and local info. explains good rote memory and special abilities
happes strnage stories 1994
short story - asked why they said something they do not mean
even those who passed second order tom impaired
may be overlap with langage issues
eyes task
baron cohen et al 1997
addresses TOM over age 6 - choose correct emotion
- Autistic group significantly impaired compared to TD group and Tourette Syndrome group
- tests criticised by autistic people
who is a main critiquer of baron-cohen
gernsbacher and yergeau
empirical failures of the claim that autistic people lack theory of mind 2019
gernsbecher and yergeau validity issues
found in baron cohen
convergent validity -> perfomance and many tom taks not correlated (SS and eyes)
predictive validity - tom doesn’t predict empathy, social skills, peer relations and more
autism false belief issue
G and Y
more aytypical a child is, more likely to fail task - downs, williams, pradar-willi, epilepsy, FAS, SES, siblings etc
TOM is not autism specific deficit - BC
universality of TOM
G and Y
even in original study 20% pass
tom relies on spoken language, 1/2 variability for false belief and 3/4 happe’s
eyes needs lanaguage for complex emotion
double empathy problem
explain differences between NT and ND
autistic and non-autistic people have different social communication systems and there’s a breakdown of mutual understanding
transactional model - how A acts and if perceived changes how others acts towards them, that is perceived and loops back to acts
social world jaswal and aktar 2019
autistic ppl long to socialise, if you assume otherwise this will affect how you act, thus reinforcing behaviour
eye contact and autism
J and A
cultural differences vbary in china (rude) and gussi of kenya (uncommon)
gussi of kenya replace eyes with touch
functional adaptation - infants look away to lower hr - overstimulating
autistic people avert to balance cog load
look at mouths - effort to hear not watch
autistic people and pointing
declarative point 12m
say autistic only point to obtain - no interest in sharing info/experience
actually BC show 6/10 do not point at all
may be motor deficit, not social
bc checklist - 9/10 parents said no pointing
motor stereotypes autism
cause unknown - culturally undesirable
infancy - animals raised in social isolation exhibit stereotyped motor movements, suggesting that autistic infants may suffer from restricted environment caused by their social withdrawal
however - social impairment does not affect repetitive/restrictive behaviours in NT or ND children -> perceiving something does not mean it is true
what is Erikson’s model of development
storm and stress - is identity crisis as individuals struggle to find out who they are
marcia 1966 and identity crisis stages
diffusion - not thought about seriously
foreclosure - formed identity commitment without exploring
moratorium - considering alternatives
achievement of identity
evidence of identity development into adulthood
men - meilman 1979 measured and said that men felt that their identity had developed 50% by age 22
oconnell 1976 reported on women and that they hadn’t got identity until sent children to school
temporal validity concerns - expectations. also, moratorium states can appear at different times for different areas, and we are scaffolded up to our identity, being led by parental values, and society
how prevalent is conflict in parent and child and how severe
rutter et al 1976 - 1/6 parents report, 1/3 children report - even in conflict it tends to be day-to-day rather than extreme. idea is that ad try to develop autonomy in a safe environment in home - testing boundaries
also - rutter noted moderate mood disruptions compared to 10yo (now need to understand modern effects on mood)
traditional vs contemporary approach to cognitive gains after childhood to adulthood
piaget’s formal operations: logic, inferential reasoning, planning,hypotheticals
end of theory - limited to straightforward situations
kramer 1983 created postformal thinking with 3 themes
realisation of relativistic nature of knowledge
acceptance of contradiction
integration of contradictions into full concepts
cognitive gains adolescence to young adulthood
vetter et al strange stories and eyes show that young/mid ad performed with lower accuracy than late ads there are individua differences in basic cog abilities. Gender did not influence age diffs
young-middle adulthood and cognitive functioning
willis and schale 1999 - inductive reasoning, verbal mem and spatial orientation peaks 4-60yrs. peak in career, may be some conflict in generativity vs stagnation
middle - late adulthood - what abilities stay
verbal recall contrinues to increase - influenced by reading
salthouse 2012
- Little evidence of relation between age and functioning in society when looking at 20-75yr old
experience matters - more important than age or reaction time in a crash risk – apply to policy – should pilots retire at a certain age?
declines in late adulthood and what causes this
finkel et al 1998 - largest difference is perceptual speed decrease on 14 cog abilities
salthouse - terminal decline tends to happens a few years before death
- What affects cog decline – relationship between health and cog, type of job and genetics (about 24% accountable for changes in intelligence through adulthood using people who had taken tests age 11, now at 80 and took dna samples. People who are more genetically similar had more similar intelligence)
