social Flashcards
1
Q
What is the main idea behind the macro-social level of societal influences?
A
The macro-social level suggests that while humans are fundamentally the same psychologically, culture significantly impacts individuals through values, beliefs, and language.
It also affects how we morally view the world.
2
Q
How does culture influence individuals according to the macro-social level?
A
Culture influences individuals by shaping their values, beliefs, and the language they speak.
3
Q
What is collectivism, and how does it relate to societal influence?
A
Collectivism is the idea that emphasizes group goals over individual goals. For example, the USA is considered more individualistic, while other cultures might prioritize collectivism.
4
Q
How does where we grow up affect our moral views?
A
The environment in which we grow up influences our moral outlooks, shaping our views on right and wrong.
5
Q
What is an example of an institutional influence at the macro-social level?
A
The school you attend is an example of an institutional influence.
6
Q
What question does the micro-social level try to answer?
A
It explores how your behavior changes in the presence of another person, such as adapting to norms and values to avoid offending others.
7
Q
What did Triplett’s (1897) study reveal about social influence?
A
Triplett found that cyclists ride faster in company, and children reel winders more quickly when with others, showing increased arousal when around others.
8
Q
What does Allport’s social facilitation theory suggest?
A
the presence of others accentuates dominant responses—helping performance on easy tasks but hindering performance on difficult tasks.
9
Q
What is the focus of the meso-social level of societal influence?
A
It examines how group membership, such as being part of a sports group or religious group, influences individual behaviour and norms.
10
Q
What is Sherif’s autokinetic effect, and what does it demonstrate?
A
Sherif’s autokinetic effect shows that people form groups and create norms that shape individual behavior. This experiment demonstrates how group influence can guide perception and behavior.
11
Q
What happens to individual identity within an intra-group context?
A
n an intra-group context, people become part of an extended self, sharing identity with the group, and tend to act collectively rather than individually.
12
Q
What is the difference between intra-group and inter-group dynamics?
A
: Intra-group dynamics refer to individuals sharing a common identity within a group, while inter-group dynamics involve how different groups interact with each other.
13
Q
How does behaviour change across different social contexts?
A
Behaviour adapts based on context, with people attributing others’ actions to their identity, such as assuming a nice act means the person is inherently nice.
14
Q
What is the concluding idea about how the social world shapes human behavior?
A
The social world shapes behaviour on macro-social, micro-social, and meso-social levels, with behaviour being variable as people move between different social contexts.
15
Q
What key question drives the study of social psychology according to the conclusion?
A
The key question is what processes allow us to become cultural and social beings.
16
Q
How does Kurt Lewin describe the focus of social psychology?
A
Kurt Lewin suggests that social psychology investigates how psychological fields are structured socially.
17
Q
/ What societal change did industrialisation lead to?
A
Industrialisation led to the formation of urban masses and a separation between working classes and ruling classes both ideologically and physically.
18
Q
What was the key concern of the elite during the rise of mass society?
A
the elite were concerned with mass challenges to the social order, particularly crowd uprisings.
19
Q
How did mass society theory in France during the Third Republic accentuate fears about crowds?
A
The insecurity of the Third Republic (due to the 1870-1871 war) transformed social challenges into threats to the social order, making crowd psychology a major issue.
20
Q
What did Clemenceau say about the nature of crowds in France?
A
He described a mob as being in a “frenzy” like “wild beasts,” acting without realising what they were doing, and as if “a breath of madness” had passed over them.
21
Q
Why did crowds become a symbol of fear during the rise of mass society?
A
Crowds represented the moment when the potential for anarchy became a reality,
symbolising fears of independent women, the collapse of patriarchy, alcoholism, and the breakdown of discipline.
22
Q
What was the principal concern of early social psychology regarding crowds?
A
The main concern was understanding crowds to know how to repress them effectively and maintain social order.
23
Q
Who is one of the best-known early crowd theorists, and what was his main idea?
A
Gustave Le Bon,
who explained how crowds could be used to maintain the social order rather than threaten it.
24
Q
What are the three main components of Le Bon’s crowd theory?
A
1) Submergence: Loss of self and gain of power.
2) Contagion: Tendency to copy any passing behaviour.
3) Suggestion: Ideas emerging from the ‘racial unconscious.’
25
What did Le Bon claim were the characteristics of crowds?
He described crowds as impulsive, irritable, lacking the capacity to reason, emotional, and similar to "savages and children."
26
What are the main criticisms of Le Bon’s theory?
1)Decontextualisation: Behaviour is detached from the social setting.
2)Naturalisation: Crowd conflict is seen as a universal trait.
3) Pathologisation: Crowd actors are depicted as mindless and dysfunctional.
27
What is the concept of deindividuation, and how does it relate to Le Bon's theory?
Deindividuation refers to the loss of self and control due to anonymity in crowds, where people act in ways they normally wouldn’t.
28
What is Floyd Allport's critique of Le Bon’s concept of group mind?
Allport dismissed the group mind as a "metaphysical abstraction," asserting that individuals in a crowd act as they would alone, only more so.
29
How did Allport’s work contribute to individualistic explanations in social psychology?
Allport’s work emphasized explaining behavior through individual characteristics, leading to the view that violent groups consist of individuals already disposed to violence.
30
According to critics, how do groups negatively affect individuals?
- Groups distort agency,
- subvert morality
- remove personal autonomy,
making individuals act in ways they wouldn’t normally.
31
What are the main negative views of crowds as discussed in the lecture?
Crowds are mad.
Crowds are bad.
Crowds are led by the mad.
Crowd behaviour is pathological.
32
What is the conclusion about the relationship between the fear of masses and psychology?
the ideological fear of the masses has been transformed into a psychological anti-collectivism, where collective action is pathologized:
either through a **loss** of individual identity (Le Bon)
or the **accentuation ** of individual identity (Allport).
33
/ What shift in perspective occurred after the Holocaust regarding prejudice?
Before the Holocaust, prejudice was often viewed as a problem with minorities.
Afterward, the focus shifted to understanding what makes the majority prejudiced against minorities.
34
How does Zygmunt Bauman's "Modernity and the Holocaust" challenge the idea of savagery?
Bauman argues that the Holocaust was not the product of a 'savage' society, culture, or individuals
but was orchestrated by well-educated members of Western society.
35
What assumption is often made about individuals who commit monstrous acts?
It is often assumed that those who commit monstrous acts must be fundamentally different or monstrous in nature compared to ordinary people.
36
What two forms of individualism are explored in explaining the behaviour of Holocaust perpetrators?
1) Chronic individualism (distinctive personality)
2) Acute individualism (distinctive experience)
37
What is authoritarian personality theory?
It is a theory that suggests individuals who grow up in authoritarian families develop a - -- personality intolerant of ambiguity,
- fearful of sexuality,
-subservient to authority,
- and hostile to minorities.
38
What are the three major problems with authoritarian personality theory?
1)Methodological problems: It confounds with conformity.
2) Explanatory problems: Difficulty explaining shifts in authoritarianism.
3) Conceptual problems: The theory's reliance on post-war American research to explain wartime German society.
39
How does categorisation contribute to bias, according to cognitive bias theory?
Categorisation simplifies reality, leading to stereotyping and bias.
Some people categorise more than others, and some situations promote more categorisation.
40
What is frustration-aggression theory?
A Freudian-based theory suggesting that frustration leads to a buildup of aggression
which is released as violence, especially under certain social conditions.
41
How was frustration-aggression theory revised over time?
the theory was modified to suggest that frustration leads to an instigation to aggress rather than aggression itself,
and the link between frustration and aggression was further weakened as not all frustration leads to aggression.
42
What is the problem of individualism in explaining behaviour?
the issue lies in whether individual behavior can be entirely explained by factors within the individual or if larger, institutional factors must also be considered.
43
What disturbing question is raised about explaining monstrous behaviour?
Is explaining monstrous behavior all about focusing on those who seem different from us, or is there more to understanding such actions?
44
// What was the aim of Sherif's Boys Camp Studies?
The studies aimed to explore how manipulating intergroup relations affects the perceptions, feelings, and actions of individual group members.
45
Who were the participants in the 1949 Boys Camp Study?
11-12-year-old white,
Protestant, middle-class boys,
considered the 'cream of the crop,'
with no expected individual problems that might lead to anti-social behaviour.
45
What were the four stages of the 1949 Boys Camp Study?
1) Spontaneous friendship
2) Group formation
3) Group competition
4) Group cooperation
45
What changes occurred during the **Group Formation** stage in the 1949 study?
Groups did activities separately that required interdependence.
In-group culture emerged, sociometric choices became overwhelmingly in-group (95%), and the out-group was derogated.
46
What happened during the **Spontaneous Friendship** stage in the 1949 study?
Boys were put together in a single bunkhouse and did all activities together.
After a few days, their sociometric choices were measured, and they were divided into two groups,
with two-thirds of each group made up of boys who disliked each other.
47
How did the boys behave during the **Group Competition** stage of the 1949 study?
Competition between the two groups escalated conflict, and even close friends turned against each other.
Out-group derogation increased,
culminating in a banquet conflict where hostility spiraled.
48
What did Sherif's 1949 study conclude about *group conflict and cooperation?*
Conflict is easy to evoke,
but harmony is much harder to achieve.
Even when harmony is reached, it may come at the cost of creating wider conflicts.
49
What modification was made in the **1954 Robber's Cave Study?**
the stage of spontaneous friendship was omitted,
and the final stage of group cooperation was modified.
50
What did the boys in the 1954 study desire when they learned of the other group's existence?
Their first instinct was to enter into competition with the other group.
51
What events escalated conflict during the Group Competition stage of the 1954 study?
Conflict escalated as the Eagles burned the Rattlers' flag,
leading both groups to refuse to eat together.
52
What were **superordinate goals** in the 1954 study, and what was their impact?
Superordinate goals, like unblocking the water supply and getting the picnic truck unstuck, required both groups to cooperate.
This reduced stereotyping and sociometric imbalance but did not eliminate them.
53
What is Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT)?
RCT states that psychological relations between group members reflect functional interdependence:
positive interdependence leads to harmony, while negative interdependence leads to conflict.
54
What evidence supports Realistic Conflict Theory?
RCT has been replicated with girls, adults, and in various countries, such as Lebanon and the Soviet Union, showing how competition leads to conflict.
55
What evidence challenges Realistic Conflict Theory?
Hostility without competition has been found in Sherif's own studies and others, suggesting that competition isn't always necessary for group conflict.
56
What question remains about Sherif's conclusions on group behaviour?
While Sherif provides powerful evidence of how groups shape behaviour, there is still debate over whether his explanation is entirely satisfactory.
57
/ What historical concept gave rise to the idea that people are subject to suggestibility?
The concept of hypnotism in the 19th century introduced the notion that people are generally susceptible to suggestion.
Gabriel Tarde described it as “social man is a somnambulist.”
58
What early 20th-century finding suggested conformity occurs when faced with differing opinions?
Studies showed that people shift their opinions to align with experts or majorities when confronted with opposing views.
59
What was Solomon Asch's primary question regarding conformity experiments?
Asch questioned whether subjects *actually * changed their opinions or if the experimental results were merely superficial or “on paper.”
60
What method did Asch use to study conformity in a controlled, scientific way?
He created a paradigm where real participants were placed with confederates who gave unanimously incorrect answers on specific trials to see if the participant would conform.
61
What behaviour did participants in Asch's experiment display when faced with unanimous incorrect answers?
participants often became fidgety, changed seating positions, whispered, or stood up to look at the lines more closely.
Sometimes, they became quiet and immobile.
62
In Asch's results, what percentage of participants conformed at least once?
76% of participants conformed at least once.
63
What percentage of trials showed participants conforming overall?
Participants conformed on 38.6% of the trials.
64
What percentage of participants conformed on half or more of the trials?
29% of participants conformed on half or more of the trials.
65
According to Asch’s results, how many participants conformed on 0 trials?
24% of participants conformed on 0 trials.
66
How does the number of confederates affect conformity, according to further studies?
Conformity increases from one to three confederates, but beyond three, the size of the majority has little effect.
67
What demographic groups were found to conform more in Asch's further studies?
Younger children conform more than older children, and women conform more than men.
68
How can conformity be reduced according to Asch's findings?
*One dissenter * in the group, especially if they are an ingroup member, can radically reduce conformity.
69
What is the concept of normative social influence?
It is the desire to be *accepted * that leads people to compromise their motivation to be accurate and conform to a majority, even when the majority is obviously incorrect.
70
: According to Asch, is conformity always blind and unthinking?
No. Participants often try to make sense of the situation and are not merely conforming blindly.
71
What key insight did Asch provide about conformity and resistance?
He found it concerning that intelligent and well-meaning young people were willing to call white black under pressure to conform.
72
Which psychologist studied conformity after Asch and extended his work?
Stanley Milgram
studied conformity under Asch at Princeton and later explored obedience in more impactful social situations.
73
What did Stanley Milgram's PhD research focus on?
It focused on national differences in conformity using Asch’s paradigm, finding, for example, that France showed the highest conformity.
74
What was Milgram’s key question after studying conformity in simple tasks?
He wondered if groups could pressure individuals to perform actions with greater human impact, such as behaving aggressively toward another person.
75
What is an 'incandescent moment'
How far will an individual go under experimental conditions and commands
76
/ What inspired Stanley Milgram to study obedience?
Milgram was influenced by the Holocaust and the actions of Nazi officials like Adolf Eichmann. He questioned how far people would go under orders.
77
What key question did Milgram aim to answer in his study?
“Just how far would a person go under the experimenter’s orders?”
78
How did Milgram recruit participants for his study?
he placed an advertisement in a local newspaper for a “study of memory,”
attracting normal, well-adjusted people from the New Haven area around Yale.
79
How were roles assigned in Milgram's experiment?
The draw was rigged so that the participant was always assigned the role of *teacher*and the confederate was assigned the role of *learner.*
80
What task did the learner have to perform?
The learner had to memorise and match word pairs (e.g., strong-arm).
81
What did the teacher do in Milgram’s study?
The teacher presented word pairs and administered electric shocks of increasing intensity whenever the learner gave a wrong answer.
82
How high did the shocks go in Milgram's study?
The shocks increased in 15-volt increments, ranging from 0 to 450 volts.
83
What did the experimenter do if the teacher hesitated to continue?
the experimenter gave a series of verbal prods to encourage the teacher to proceed.
84
What did experts predict about how far participants would go?
Experts predicted that no more than 1% of participants would go to 450 volts.
85
What were the actual findings in Milgram’s baseline study?
a significant number of participants went all the way to 450 volts, despite the learner's protests.
86
What is the concept of the “banality of evil” in Milgram's context?
The idea that people commit horrific acts not because they are monsters, but because they are *ordinary individuals following orders*, as exemplified by Adolf Eichmann.
87
What is the agentic state?
The agentic state is when:
people act as agents for an authority figure, feeling a sense of obligation rather than acting out of aggression.
88
What ethical controversies arose from Milgram’s study?
Critics like Baumrind and Bettelheim argued the study caused potential psychological harm and compared it to Nazi experiments.
89
What historical evidence challenges the agentic state explanation?
Eichmann and others in the Holocaust were not just following orders but were actively committed to their actions, described as “alpinists of evil.”
90
What were some psychological criticisms of Milgram’s findings?
critics noted the role of variability, the experimenter’s voice, and the learner’s protests in influencing obedience.
91
what is the engaged follower explanation of obedience?
People obey because they identify with the experimenter and the goals of the study, not because they are unaware of their actions.
92
What conclusion did Milgram draw about ordinary people and obedience?
Ordinary people can commit harm under instruction, but they often believe they are doing the *right thing * rather than acting blindly.
93
/ What cultural impact did the Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE) have?
The SPE inspired films, bands, and influenced Holocaust scholarship, changing how people understand human capacity for evil.
94
What famous psychologist went to high school with Zimbardo?
Stanley Milgram; Zimbardo was the most popular, Milgram the most intelligent.
95
What psychological phenomenon does the Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE) illustrate?
The SPE illustrates *deindividuation*
, where people lose their sense of individual identity and act in ways they normally wouldn’t.
96
How did the SPE demonstrate the impact of social roles on behaviour?
Participants conformed to the behaviors expected of their assigned roles as guards or prisoners, leading to abusive and submissive behaviours.
97
What concept explains the guards' increasingly brutal behaviour during the SPE?
The concept of situational power suggests that the environment and assigned roles influence people to act in ways they may not otherwise.
98
How does deindividuation contribute to group behaviour, according to the SPE?
Deindividuation reduces self-awareness and accountability,
making people more likely to engage in irrational and impulsive behaviour within a group.
99
How does the SPE challenge the idea that people are naturally 'evil'?
the SPE shows that situational factors, not inherent traits,
can lead individuals to commit harmful acts when placed in positions of power or powerlessness.
100
What role did leadership play in shaping the guards' behaviour in the SPE?
leadership, such as the warden’s instructions and Zimbardo’s briefing, encouraged guards to dominate and dehumanise prisoners, legitimizing their brutal behavior.
101
How did the concept of identity leadership manifest in the SPE?
guards and experimenters shared a commitment to a noble cause (revealing flaws in the prison system),
which justified their brutality as necessary for the greater good.
102
How does the SPE relate to the concept of conformity?
The SPE shows that individuals may conform to group norms and expectations, even when those norms lead to unethical behaviour.
103
What does the SPE reveal about the balance between individual agency and group influence?
It suggests that while individuals have agency, group dynamics and situational pressure can override personal values and lead to unexpected behaviour.
104
How did some participants resist their roles during the SPE?
Some prisoners resisted their dehumanization, and not all guards acted brutally —
showing that *individual choice* can persist even in oppressive systems.
105
What criticism does the SPE face regarding accountability for harmful actions?
Critics argue that the SPE’s findings could be used to excuse abuse by suggesting individuals have no control over their behaviour when in groups.
106
How did the SPE influence understandings of real-world prison violence?
The SPE suggested that the prison environment and social roles can lead to systemic abuse,
influencing views on incidents like the Abu Ghraib scandal.
107
How does the SPE compare to Milgram's obedience experiments?
Both studies demonstrate how ordinary people can commit harmful acts under the
influence of authority figures or situational pressures.
108
What does the SPE imply about the dangers of group identity and power dynamics?
implies that identifying with a group that holds power can lead to oppressive behaviours,
while lack of power can result in submission and suffering.
109
What is the primary conclusion of Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment?
the study concludes that situations and social roles can strongly influence behaviour,
sometimes leading to abuse and conformity to harmful norms.
110
/// What fundamental question did Tajfel seek to answer with Social Identity Theory?
He wanted to identify the minimum conditions for groups to display ingroup bias and outgroup derogation.
111
What are the five minimal conditions for group bias identified by Tajfel's experiments?
1) No knowledge of group members
2) No history with the other group
3) No interaction with the other group
4) No personal gain from actions
5) Actions not linked to group membership
112
What was the key finding from Tajfel's minimal group studies?
Participants consistently prioritised ingroup differentiation (getting slightly more than the outgroup) over fairness or maximising profit.
113
What are the three stages of the differentiation process in Social Identity Theory?
1) Social identification
2) Social comparison
3) Social differentiation (assuming a desire for positive social identity)
114
What is the difference between personal identity and social identity?
-personal identity refers to who you are as an individual.
-Social identity is the knowledge that you belong to social groups and the emotional value attached to that membership.
115
How does social comparison work in the context of Social Identity Theory?
People compare themselves at a group level, not individually
, focusing on relevant dimensions shared by the groups.
116
Why does social differentiation occur according to Social Identity Theory?
Because people seek positive social identity, they aim to make their group distinct and superior to outgroups on valued dimensions.
117
What role does differentiation play in creating social meaning?
Differentiation helps establish group distinctiveness, giving members a sense of identity and meaning even in minimal conditions.
118
How does Social Identity Theory explain group behaviour beyond differentiation?
It examines how the desire for positive distinctiveness operates in real-world contexts, especially among groups facing inequality.
119
What are the three conditions that influence social change according to Social Identity Theory?
1) Impermeability – belief that one cannot progress individually due to group membership
2) Illegitimacy – recognizing inequality as unfair
3) Cognitive alternatives – imagining and achieving a better society
120
What strategies emerge from impermeability and system security?
- Permeability → Social mobility strategies
- Impermeability + security → Creativity strategies
-impermeability + insecurity → Social change strategies
121
What is the significance of self-categorization in Social Identity Theory?
It transforms individuals’ cognition and behaviour,
making *group behaviour* and collective action possible.
122
How does Social Identity Theory explain achieving collective agency?
By sharing a worldview and cooperating, groups become more aligned and empowered, enabling them to create change effectively.
123
What is the overall conclusion of Social Identity Theory?
Groups provide:
*meaning, *
perspective,
and the power to interpret and change the world, without resorting to mindless conformity.
124
According to Social Identity Theory, how do groups influence cognition and social relations?
Groups help:
align thoughts,
foster trust and cooperation,
and reduce disgust toward ingroup members,
enhancing group cohesion.
125
/// How does the concept of the "cognitive miser" relate to group processes?
The cognitive miser suggests that due to limited processing capacity, people simplify judgments, especially under cognitive load, leading to the use of group stereotypes and biases.
126
What is the significance of socially constructed group processes in discrimination?
Socially constructed group processes define categories, *ingroup membership, * and *outgroup identities*,
influencing how prejudice and discrimination emerge.
127
Why is category construction necessary for intergroup hostility?
Hostility between groups requires framing the world in terms of *group divisions*
and making these divisions **salient ** and relevant in context.
128
What factors influence how someone is seen as part of the ingroup?
Factors like :
*shared identity*, *cultural background* and definitions of belonging (e.g., nationality, ethnicity) determine ingroup membership.
129
How is "otherness" constructed in intergroup contexts?
Otherness is constructed by emphasising differences between 'us' and 'them' and creating narratives that portray outgroups as distinct or inferior.
130
What role does threat play in reinforcing group distinctions?
groups construct outgroups as :
a threat to their values, interests, or existence, which reinforces group boundaries and justifies discrimination.
131
What are two types of contact that can reduce prejudice?
**Extended contact** – Knowing someone who has contact with an outgroup member.
**Imagined contact** – Imagining positive interactions with outgroup members.
132
According to Pettigrew & Tropp (2006), how effective is contact in reducing prejudice?
In 94% of studies analysed, contact reduced prejudice,
with a mean correlation of –0.21 between contact and prejudice.
133
What are some limitations of intergroup contact in reducing prejudice?
1) Effects are weaker for minority group members.
2) Contact may reduce prejudice but not necessarily lead to challenging discriminatory laws.
3) Contact can sometimes undermine collective action by minorities.
134
What is the difference between individual and structural approaches to addressing racism?
**Individual approaches **focus on changing attitudes.
**Structural approaches** focus on changing the systems and institutions that maintain inequality.
135
How does the psychological explanation of racism risk oversimplification?
It can imply that racism is an *inevitable *consequence of cognition,
ignoring *social structures* and *power dynamics* that perpetuate inequality.
136
Why is collective action considered important in overcoming discrimination?
Collective action challenges systemic inequalities and discriminatory practices,
addressing deeper *societal structures * rather than *just individual attitudes*
137
How can narratives and media imagery reinforce group stereotypes and discrimination?
Depictions that highlight *differences* or frame outgroups as *threats*
(e.g., portraying refugees as dangerous) reinforce biases and justify exclusion.
138
/ What is the main misconception about the Kitty Genovese case?
The misconception is that 38 witnesses watched the attack for the entire duration without intervening, but evidence does not support this version of events.
139
What is bystander apathy (the Bystander Effect)?
The phenomenon where the larger the number of people present during an emergency, the less likely it is that any one person will intervene.
140
What did the 1968 Epileptic Fit Study demonstrate about group size and helping behaviour?
It showed that people were less likely to help when more bystanders were present,
illustrating *diffusion of responsibility*.
141
What are the three explanations for bystander apathy?
1)Diffusion of responsibility – Believing someone else will act.
2) Audience inhibition – Fear of looking foolish.
3)Social influence – Assuming no emergency because others do not react.
142
What does the cognitive model (1970) suggest about group influence on behaviour?
It suggests that groups can subvert personal standards, morality, and agency,
making people less likely to act pro-socially.
143
How do physical groups differ from psychological groups in helping behaviour?
physical group: is just a collection of people,
psychological group: shares social relationships and norms, which can influence helping behaviour.
144
How does group size affect intervention based on group norms?
In psychological groups, larger group size *can increase intervention*
if group norms support helping behaviour.
145
How do relationships with perpetrators affect intervention?
1) people are more likely to intervene when the perpetrator is outgroup and the victim is ingroup **(anger effect).**
2) They are more likely to intervene when the perpetrator is ingroup and the victim is outgroup **(shame effect).**
146
How does defining group boundaries affect helping behaviour towards victims?
Helping behaviour increases when victims are defined as part of an ingroup,
influenced by whether group membership is based on ethnicity (low help)
or civic commitment (high help).
147
What lesson did COVID-19 provide about group identity and support?
Shared identity led to *mutual support,* resilience, and the formation of mutual aid organisations,
promoting group solidarity and adherence to health measures.
148
How does exclusion or inclusion in a group affect helping behaviour?
- **Exclusion ** leads to neglect and lack of help.
- **Inclusion** fosters solidarity and increases helping behaviour.
149
According to the lecture, are groups inherently good or bad?
groups are neither inherently good nor bad;
what matters are the group’s *boundaries* and *norms.*
150
/ What is the significance of 'the right stuff' in leadership?
It refers to the *qualities* of a leader and the fact that leaders achieve outcomes through *followers* via social relationships.
151
How do contingency theories describe leadership?
they suggest that leaders are the *right people* in the *right place,*
balancing between autonomy and dependence on situational factors.
152
What role do followers play in leadership?
Followers are essential, as leadership involves a *social relationship *
where leaders influence and transform followers' wants, needs, and desires.
153
What is the difference between transactional and transformational models of leadership?
**-transactional**: Leadership is an exchange where leaders reward followers.
**-Transformational**: Leaders transform followers' motivations and values.
154
What is the basis of leadership in social identity theory?
leadership relies on the *‘we’ relationship *between leaders and followers,
where both share a *common social identity.*
155
What are the four principles of social identity leadership?
1) Being one of us (prototypes of identity).
2) Doing it for us (champions of identity).
3) Crafting a sense of us (entrepreneurs of identity).
4)Making us real (impressarios of identity).
156
What does ‘being one of us’ mean in social identity leadership?
Leaders must be seen as a *representative* of the group, sharing the group's identity and values.
157
What does ‘doing it for us’ mean in social identity leadership?
Leaders act as *champions* of the group’s interests,
prioritising the group’s needs over their own.
158
How does a leader ‘craft a sense of us’?
By being an *entrepreneur* of identity, shaping and reinforcing a shared
understanding of what it means to be part of the group.
159
What does ‘making us real’ entail for leaders?
leaders act as *impressarios of identity, *
turning the group’s shared identity into a tangible reality through actions and symbols.
160
What are the 3 R’s of leadership practice?
Reflect – Understand the group.
Represent – Stand for and stand up for the group.
Realize – Turn identity into reality.
161
What is the core conclusion of the lecture on leadership?
Leadership is a *social process*,
where leaders succeed or fail based on their ability to build and maintain a relationship **between self and group.**
162
How does the course conclude on the relationship between the individual and society?
Our identity, beliefs, and actions are shaped by the social world,
emphasising the dynamics of the variable *self in different contexts.*
