Social Flashcards

Question

What does informational conformity show us about human social learning/ reliance?

Answer 1

Humans learn how to do things from each other, thus are important and valuable to each other in navigating ambiguousness in social reality Therefore, are likely to conform to other people's answers e.g. How far a spot was moving - when answers said out loud, people's answer got closer to the other answers (Sherif, 1936)

Answer 2

Love is not simply lots of liking

Answer 3

1) Intimacy - closeness and understanding 2) Passion - physical or sexual attraction or romance 3) Commitment - the cognitive factors such as the decision to maintain the relationship Just intimacy = liking Just passion = infatuation Just commitment = empty love

Answer 4

Romantic = intimacy + passion Fatuous = passion + commitment Companionate = intimacy + commitment Consummate = intimacy + passion + commitment

Answer 5

An intense longing for union with the other (Hatfield and Walster, 1978) Romantic passion is a motivational desire for intimacy (Carswell and Impett, 2021) Passion is attributing arousal with a certain person

Answer 6

Men who walked across a high rickety bridge rated a woman more attractive as those on a low stable bridge: heart beating faster was attributed to the woman

Answer 7

1) Cognitive - thinking about someone 2) Affective - attraction 3) Behavioural - maintaining physical closeness

Answer 8

1) Lust/sex drive - androgen (testosterone) mediated 2) Attraction (romantic love) - dopamine mediated (addiction model) 3) Attachment (long-term bonding) - oxytocin mediated

Answer 9

“I do not believe that friends are necessarily the people you like best, they are merely the people who got there first” - Sir Peter Ustinov - In student accommodation, people with rooms next to each other were more likely to be friends (Festinger et al., 1950) - Sitting in neighbouring seats in a class predicts friendships 1 year later (Back et al., 2008)

Answer 10

- Familiar fictitious foreign words rated more positive in meaning (Zajonc 1968) - Students rate classroom visitors they see more often more positively (Moreland and Beach 1992)

Answer 11

Newcomb (1961) - students randomly assigned to dorms, and similarity of attitudes predicted friendship Byrne and Clare (1974) - similarity in attitudes directly relates to liking/attraction Tan & Singh (1995) - we also dislike people whose beliefs are different from ours

Answer 12

- Bosson et al - sharing negative opinions may create bonding Balance theory - Heider (1958), Newcomb (1961) - both liking something, both equal Social comparison theory - Festinger (1954) - use other people as a basis for making judgements about yourself - similar others provide validation for one's own beliefs

Answer 13

Byrne et al (1970): - Paired blind dates as either very similar or dissimilar - Similarity strong predictor of attraction, but so was attractiveness The role of similarity depends on how much commitment is desired: - Similarity desired for committed relationships - For flings - dissimilarity is preferred (Amodio and Showers, 2005)

Answer 14

We like people who like us Dittes and Kelley (1956) - experiment: - Group discussion, followed by fake 'approval ratings' of each other - Strongly affected their liking of group Reciprocity can make up for absence of similarity

Answer 15

Collins and Miller (1994) Meta-analysis: - Trust makes people like each other more - Talking about personal matters creates trust and thus, liking - Stronger for women than men, stronger for same-sex vs opposite sex pairings, level of disclosure did not make a difference

Answer 16

Relationships are based on a principle of rewards and costs in interactions - is the relationship profitable? Simple standard : Outcome (profit) = Rewards - Costs (absolute measure) But, people don't just want profit, they want the best possible outcome

Answer 17

CL = what we feel we deserve from relationships, specific to the individual, based on prior experience, learning, personality High CL = expect relationships to be rewarding, low rewards unacceptable and disappointing Low CL - expect relationships to be troublesome, low rewards are acceptable and tolerable (Bella Swan) Relationships that meet or exceed expectations are more satisfying

Answer 18

CLalt = what we realistically expect we could get elsewhere: - Includes other partners or no partner - Standard against which we decide to stay or leave

Answer 19

Dependence = degree to which we feel psychologically linked to our relationship, determines whether we are motivated to stay or leave This is not solely based on whether or not we are happy (could economically rely on partner) - Low CLalt - high dependence even when there is high cost - Satisfaction = outcome - CL - Dependence = outcome - CLalt

Answer 20

People are motivated by self interest, but other people have options too - must be fair in order to get along - People feel most comfortable when they get roughly what they deserve, no more and no less - Concerned with fair distribution of rewards and costs

Answer 21

1) Partners are concerned with fairness 2) Inequity causes distress 3) Partners will take steps to restore equity - Partners have equal relative profit - Don't have to be same rewards, just same balance Equality = give gift equal in value to what friend gave you Equity = tally inputs into relationship (rides to work, social support) and give/do something in proportion to benefits received

Answer 22

Clarks and Mills (1979) suggest casual/business relationships are based on exchange, but close relationships are communal (based on concern for other person, not expectation of reward) Page et al (2019) childcare provision amongst Agta driven by reciprocity for friends, and need for kin

Answer 23

Yes - online hookups often become long term Campbell, 2002 - 'emotions, not rational calculation, drive human behaviour'

Answer 24

Most relationship research is white, heterosexual couples

Answer 25

Proximity Similarity Reciprocity Physical attraction

Answer 26

How physically attractive other people rate them

Answer 27

Similarity

Answer 28

- Greater overall liking - More desirable character traits (e.g. sensitive, warm, intelligent) - Higher evaluation of work performance - More lenient treatment in the legal system (Downs & Lyons, 1991) - lighter sentencing

Answer 29

- Higher income (Hamermesh & Biddle, 1994) - Better mental health - More social influence (Chaiken, 1979)

Answer 30

- Attraction is also about how attractive the other person thinks they are - Computer dating scenario - Similarity of attractiveness > attractiveness - Similarity more important for women than men - Self-esteem? Balance?

Answer 31

Different attractiveness - short Equal attractiveness - long

Answer 32

- Cultural work expanded - Development of cognitive theories - Beginnings of evolutionary psychology

Answer 33

1) High level of agreement across cultures (Langlois et al, 2000) 2) Certain facial features are reliably associated with attractiveness (Cunningham, 1986) 3) Babies prefer attractive faces - spend more time looking at faces adults think are attractive

Answer 34

1) Different cultures “improve” beauty in different ways (Newman, 2000) e.g. face tattoos, neck rings 2) Different body types are judged to be more attractive in different parts of the world (Anderson et. al 1992) 3) Body type standards vary over time (Silverstein et al, 1986)

Answer 35

Zulus in South Africa rated high BMI bodies as more attractive than Zulu migrants in the UK and than Black British people

Answer 36

Nicaragua - very isolated community No TV in village - highest attractiveness ratings for high BMI TV 5 years ago - lower ratings Capital city - even lower ratings - Consumption of TV changes the type of body people see as attractive

Answer 37

Men's preferences for large buttocks and hips: Men more interested in the body in motion - thinking of bodies in terms of sex Women did not have the same approach

Answer 38

Nicaragua and Uganda - much more spread out preference UK - specific preference for muscularity

Answer 39

- Facial prototype formation and attraction to 'averageness' - Preference robust across adults e.g. Rhodes et al, Langlois et al - However infants seem to prefer distinctiveness (adults do not) e.g. Rhodes et al (2002): 6 month olds distinctiveness preference Giffrey and Little (2013): 1 to 2 year olds distinctiveness preference

Answer 40

A person developing a preference for faces they have more exposure to (present in adults and children): - Mixed vs single sex schools (Saxton et al, 2010) - in single sex schools, men preferred masculine female faces and women preferred feminine male faces - Story book experiments (Anzures et al, 2008) - children saw contracted or expanded faces, and children who saw contracted were more likely to pick contracted as their preference and vice versa

Answer 41

- Zhao et al (2023) - 682 students were photographed and took part in speed dating - Averageness (and similarity) -> rated attractiveness

Answer 42

Sexual selection: - Differential mating/reproduction Inter-sexual selection: - Opposite sex prefers some traits more than others increasing the frequency of those genes in the next generation (attractive/successful traits passed on, 'attractive' traits benefit the chooser) - Choosing healthy genes in a partner will give a person healthy offspring - e.g. averageness is associated with health? (Rhodes et al) 'average' people had a gene for more resistance to pathogens

Answer 43

- Monogamy - one male, one female - Polygyny - several females, one male - Polyandry - several males, one female - Promiscuity - no bonded relationships (chimps)

Answer 44

- 'A history of mild polygyny?' - 'A monogamous species plagued by polygyny?' - Serially monogamous? - 17 women for every man - human genome - indicates polygyny - Modest size dimorphism and intermediate testicular volume - the more males that females are mating with, the bigger the testicular volume due to sperm competition - Sperm competition means some polyandry too - Conclusion - Monogamish

Answer 45

One reproductive cell being much bigger than the other

Answer 46

Any investment made in a particular offspring which contributes to its survival and fitness which comes at the cost of being able to invest in other offspring (Trivers, 1972)

Answer 47

Female: - Large gamete - Mating - Gestation - Parturition - Lactation - Extended care beyond weaning Male: - Small gamete - Mating (Although both parents can provide extended care)

Answer 48

- Maternally biased parental investment - Females = 'limiting factor' - Females possibly more careful about who they reproduce with as they have more to lose as they carry the child and are more involved with it through things like breastfeeding - Bus and Schmitt (1993) - sexual strategies theory - sex that is limiting factor (women) should be more choosy, and men should compete

Answer 49

Male: Short term - proceptivity (person being interested back), fertility Long term - youth, fertility, faithfulness Female: Short term - good genes (high quality child who will provide grandchildren) Long term - resources/status, generosity (Women consistently want a bit more than men)

Answer 50

Mutual attraction, dependable personality, health and intelligence

Answer 51

- Waist-hip ratio (Singh et al, 1992) Males favoured high waist-hip ratio However, confounding waist-hip ratio with BMI - Femininity (Law Smith et al, 2006) - Facial attractiveness Could be due to oestrogen so could indicate fertility However, it is hard to link facial femininity to underlying fertility

Answer 52

Females prefer males with handicaps (mating characters that reduce survival chances) because handicaps are indicators of heritable viability (surviving despite the handicap) e.g. having an extravagant tail means you are far from predators

Answer 53

Colouration in mandril's nose is an indicator of health

Answer 54

For more testosterone, a person needs a really good immune system so all body systems can work

Answer 55

- Averageness - Femininity in women - Symmetry and health

Answer 56

- The less healthy you are the more the environment assaults you and the less symmetric you are - Jones et al (2001) - measured symmetry of 60 faces - symmetry predicted 'apparent health' and 'skin patch health' - Benefits: Offspring inherit immunity to current pathogens and avoid infection

Answer 57

1550 participants from 10 countries (uni/urban/semi-urban) More feminised female faces looked more attractive Weak to zero link between symmetry and attractiveness Distinctiveness was rated less attractive

Answer 58

- We all have embodied value in particular contexts - Sticklebacks: Kraak and Bakker (1998) - male sticklebacks that are more red have a tendency to swim towards larger females who will lay more eggs as they are higher quality - Zebra finches: Burley et al (1996) - males with red leg band (more attractive) mated more but nested less

Answer 59

- Gangestad and Thornhill (1999): - Men who had less body fluctuating asymmetry - they engaged in less relationship behaviours

Answer 60

- Explicit mate advertisements (lonely hearts ads) - women say less about themselves and more about what they want - Older women make fewer requests and are less likely to say their age

Answer 61

More attractive females prefer more symmetric men - People who think they are more attractive select more attractive partners

Answer 62

- Makeup - makes skin look healthier, makes you look younger - Corset - waist to hip ratio - High heels - exaggerates movement of a wider pelvis when you walk

Answer 63

Didn't make them appear more attractive to women, made them seem more dominant - male to male competition

Answer 64

Parents influence mate preferences in many birds and mammals - the one that raised you influences your preference for mate.

Answer 65

Individuals with similar phenotypes or genotypes mate with each other more frequently

Answer 66

Helps keep good gene-complexes together Increases parents' relatedness to their own children

Answer 67

- Age of parents you are exposed to when growing up predicts the age you find attractive - People likely to have partners who look like that gender parent - Could just be parent is a model of a nice person - Mechanism - we spend more time looking at relatives (high exposure) - has an effect on what we think a person should look like later - Imprinting is likely a byproduct of learning what faces look like and high exposure with parents, as it is the same with adoptive children - about learning not inherent genetics

Answer 68

The sexes are physically different e.g. men being generally physically larger

Answer 69

Gender pay gap = 15.5% overall and up to 55% in finance sector Gender discrimination still seen in employment Honour killings Silent epidemic of male suicide Trans and non-binary people fear expressing their gender identity

Answer 70

Sex is biological (females make the bigger gametes, however definitions of sex have also been subject to cultural change), gender is social (psychological identity)

Answer 71

- Gender roles - behaviours considered appropriate for males and females - Gender identity - perception of oneself as male or female

Answer 72

Essentialist (inherent qualities of being a certain gender) Conditionalist (the way in which you are male and female depends on context)

Answer 73

1 in 400 livebirths show sex chromosome atypicalities - X0 - Turner's syndrome - XXX - XXY - Klinefelter's syndrome - XYY

Answer 74

- Atypical hormone exposure in utero - Congenital adrenal hyperplasia - excess testosterone - Androgen insensitivity syndrome - body does not process testosterone Keevil et al (2017) - over 4000 ppts - salivary testosterone - many men's T levels are indistinguishable from 'above average' women - Controversial advantages in sport for women with high testosterone - Higher average testosterone production for non-running sports compared to running sports

Answer 75

Sex differences in brain regions in 1400 brains

Answer 76

- EHRC: 1.3% of UK population identify as gender variant (e.g. trans, non-binary, or agender) - Nolan et al (2019) - review of gender diversity and gender-confirming surgery in the USA - estimated 0.39-2.7% of population are gender variant

Answer 77

Cohen's D = Male average - female average/ pooled standard deviation + value means men are higher - value means women are higher

Answer 78

D scores summarise overlap/ difference D score for gender difference = 11

Answer 79

Small = 0.2 (85% overlap) Medium = 0.5 (67% overlap) Large = 0.8 (52% overlap)

Answer 80

Physical aggression (S) Balloon task (S) Individual contribution (S) Task orientation of same-sex groups (S) Autocratic leadership (S) Emerging as task leader (S) Task leadership behaviour (S) Time on active task behaviour (M) Equity of rewards (S)

Answer 81

Positive social behaviour (M) Smaller reward for self (S) Social task performance (M) Democratic leadership (S) Influences by group pressure (S) Visual decoding of emotion (S) Visual and auditory decoding of emotion (L) Face recognition (S) Accuracy of facial expression (sending) (M) Smiling (M) Gazing (M) Bodily expressiveness (M)

Answer 82

Paper-and-pencil tests of beliefs, preferences, behaviours They must be: - Reliable - consistent in their measurement over time and measuring a single underlying construct - Valid - test scores correlate with behavioural external criterion (concurrent or predictive)

Answer 83

Male > female: - Psychotocism (S) Female > male - Liberal sex role attitudes (M) - Closeness to others (S) - Self-disclosure (S) - Anxiety (S) - External Locus of control (S) (Significant cross-cultural variation with this)

Answer 84

- Bem suggested that masculinity and femininity were two separate dimensions - Lists of words were generated - Raters asked to state whether they were more desirable in men or in women: Women score higher than men on the femininity scale of the BSRI While men score higher than women on the masculinity scale

Answer 85

- People's ratings of themselves as masculine or feminine don't relate to their self-ratings on the rest of the scales - Masculinity and femininity are not statistically independent Others have argued that Bem's scales measure something other than masculinity/ femininity: - Expressivity vs. Instrumentality (task orientation) (Spence 1974) - Nurturance vs Dominance (Wiggins 1989) - Communion vs Agency (Bakan 1966)

Answer 86

Both sex and gender exist on continua Sex and gender are mosaic not monolithic

Answer 87

- Cultural/social approaches: - Social role theory - Learning theory and Gender schema theory - Biological approaches: - Evolutionary arguments - Biological development

Answer 88

Sex = irrelevant Gender = learned and socially imposed

Answer 89

Culturally imposed gendered division of labour leads to: - Conformity to gender role expectations - Sex typed skills and beliefs leads to: - Sex differences in behaviour

Answer 90

- Mead (1935) - sex and temperament - made claims that gender roles are purely cultural and can be inverted across different cultures, or both sexes feminine or both sexes masculine - Ember (1981) - Asked if certain tasks were exclusively gendered in all cultures (Standard cross cultural sample) Male exclusive = warfare, hunting etc Female exclusive = principal care-taking of infants Male predominant = herding, land clearing, building, butchery Female predominant = Gathering, weaving, laundry

Answer 91

Burial evidence for female hunter in the Andes 9K YBP Other evidence across the Americas in similar time range

Answer 92

Men mostly dealt with large fauna, fowl and fish, whereas women dealt with small fauna, eggs, insects, shellfish and vegetables

Answer 93

Biological differences between the sexes have no direct link to gender differences in behaviour

Answer 94

- Yes - stereotype threat and maths performance - telling girls that generally they are worse at maths makes their performance worse - No - stereotypes have remained consistent over last 50 years despite change in division of labour - No - children show sex differences in behaviour before they have stereotypes

Answer 95

Stereotype (perceived) was weaker than actual difference, therefore the stereotype cannot be the cause of behaviour

Answer 96

- Sex differences in impulsivity seem to be declining as we become more egalitarian - Sex differences in some personality traits in egalitarian societies have become larger, not smaller

Answer 97

National gender equality predicts bigger sex differences in benevolence/power values - because women change more.

Answer 98

Boys and girls are encouraged and rewarded for different behaviours - Baby X studies - people treat a baby differently based on whether they think the baby is a boy or a girl - BUT meta-analysis found no support for boys and girls being punished for different things, but found difference in sex-typed toys and chores - different training in skills or experiences as a result of their gender (Lytton and Romney 1991)

Answer 99

Social learning theory (Bandura 1973): emphasized importance of modelling - social learning instead of conditioning - BUT - Sex of model by sex of child interaction not found over 80 studies (Maccoby and Jacklin 1974) - child equally likely to copy either - Imitation is found when model engages in sex-typical behaviour (Perry and Bussey 1979)

Answer 100

Gendered copying when there was a medium to high preference, in chance condition the choice is equal - children observe patterns in the environment and fit themselves into that pattern

Answer 101

Attend to gender-typed information as schema develops

Answer 102

No Children cannot necessarily verbalise gender permanence but still recognise gender stereotype patterns and stereotypes

Answer 103

Predicts later gender stereotyping in children - stereotyping flows from own gender

Answer 104

Average TV watching: - 4 y/o = 2 hours - 12 y/o = 4 hours Children's characters are mostly male and still gender stereotyped

Answer 105

Negative views of women and the sexes' relationship

Answer 106

Sexual selection = main focus - Differential mating/ reproduction - Inter-sexual selection: opposite sex prefers some traits more than others increasing the frequency of those genes in the next generation - Intra-sexual competition: some traits make an individual a better competitor against members of their own sex

Answer 107

The sex which has lower PI tends to compete for mating access (x species) - The sex which has the higher PI tends to be 'choosy' (selective) - In most species, this leads to competitive males and choosy females

Answer 108

1) Males compete for females 2) Male reproductive success (RS) depends on number of sexual partners -> polygyny can benefit males 3) Polygyny -> competition for dominance/ resources We see the legacy in men's greater competitiveness, dominance striving, sensitivity to slight and aggression

Answer 109

1) Females more important to offspring survival - lactation 2) Females who avoid physical danger have higher reproductive success (RS) 3) Intra-female tensions need diverting safely and women need safety in numbers 4) Women more likely to engage in foraging than hunting We see the legacy in women's aversion to physical risk, low aggression, stronger social skills and greater use of democratic leadership, and a sex difference in spatial reasoning

Answer 110

Key assumptions: - Ancestral polygyny, (probably only true for a minority of men) - Genetic inheritance - Biological (ish) causation

Answer 111

- Selection acts through genes - Sex-linked gene - location on the X or Y chromosome (allosomes) - Sex-limited gene - located on a different chromosome (autosomes), 'turned on' by the presence of sex hormone - Most sex differences are sex limited Because: - Y chromosome - small (30ish genes vs several thousand) - Principally carries the SRY gene - manufacture of testes and inhibition of female reproductive organs

Answer 112

- An androgen released by testes - Men - the sensitivity to testosterone is determined by the mother - Organising effects: foetal production of T - 6 weeks (gest) - 3 months (post partum) - Activating effects: T rises again at puberty - However, impact depends upon T levels and number of receptors - Testosterone primes learning of gendered behaviour

Answer 113

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia/ adrenogenital syndrome - Surge of adrenal testosterone in utero - caused by metabolic error and cortisol deficiency - 1 in 15,000 births - CAH boys - larger genitals and higher on aggression (Berenbaum and Resnick 1997) - CAH females - external organs masculinised, corrected with surgery and cortisol - Aged 4-19: male stereotyped energy expenditure, sex of playmates, interest in marriage, motherhood and child care, doll play, 'tomboys', visuospatial ability (however this is related to experience) (Erhadt 1975) - Most have female gender identity

Answer 114

There is limited evidence for sex differences in infancy behaviour (Else-Quest et al, 2006) - Early T exposure may predict later play typicality (Pasterski et al., 2015)

Answer 115

More penile growth in early months - early exposure to testosterone, priming boys for later in life

Answer 116

- Family with a rare genetic disorder - XY foetuses under-exposed to T in utero - 18 'boys' raised unambiguously as girls - At puberty, they all experiences release of T - grew beards, clitoris become penis, voices broke - 17/18 had male identity, 16/17 had male gender role Evidence for testosterone effects on gender differences But, was it such an easy switch because it's a common disorder in the area? Cultural expectations?

Answer 117

Genes create finite number of options for the environment to choose/ refine

Answer 118

The penectomised twin He lost his penis due to complications with circumcision He was raised as a girl instead - socialisation and oestrogen treatment Then later in life realised he was male and transitioned Shows you can't change someone's gender identity for them Diamond, 1982 - nature sets limits to sexual identity, and within these limits social forces interact and gender roles are formulated - a biosocial interaction theory

Answer 119

Combines social and biological approaches - More sophisticated than biosocial approach - Genes and environment interaction - Canalised development - genes create finite number of options for the environment to 'choose'/ refine

Answer 120

- Pre-natal T affects response to information on toy 'gender typicality' - CAH females made far fewer gendered choices - Early testosterone gives initial affinity for gender-typed behaviour

Answer 121

'Any form of behaviour directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment' (Baron and Richardson 1994) - Intention - Harm (includes emotional distress) - Motivation to avoid

Answer 122

- Mainly done with children - Ecologically valid - Time consuming - Ethics of observing aggression?

Answer 123

- E.g. Think they're giving someone an electric shock or ‘negative ratings' - Point subtraction paradigm - Ecological validity?

Answer 124

- Relies on memory/honesty - Large samples possible - Validity?

Answer 125

“Given enough provocation, I may hit another person” - physical “I often find myself disagreeing with people” - verbal “When people are especially nice, I wonder what they want” - hostility

Answer 126

Asks people to report incidents of: - Shouting - Hitting - Striking with a blunt implement etc… - Real evidence - Ethical issues of admitting to illegal activities - Many physical, few verbal, does not include sexual violence

Answer 127

- Direct aggression - the aggressor is identifiable and can be counter-attacked - Indirect aggression - the aggressor remains hidden (e.g. spreading rumours)

Answer 128

- Instrumental - aggression in order to achieve a goal - Expressive - aggression as expression of internal state 'When impelling forces cannot be contained by inhibitory forces' (Driscoll, 2006)

Answer 129

- ID, ego and superego - weak ego - Develop superego (moral compass) over time - If this is weak, the ID takes over - If there is weak ego it cannot handle the conflict between superego and ID and aggression comes out

Answer 130

- Drive requires discharge through catharsis (purging) - ID drives you to destruction

Answer 131

- Shock giving (after ‘attack’) leads to increases -not decreases - in subsequent punitiveness (Berkowitz 1965) - Aggression increases in US football players over the course of the season (Patterson 1974) - Spectator hostility increases during match (Russell 1983) - Catharsis beliefs may be harmful

Answer 132

Frustration is the interference with a goal response that leads to a reward - Aggression always results from frustration - Frustration does not always lead to aggression Level of aggression depends on: - Whether aggression will end the frustration i.e. is instrumental (Buss 1966) - Whether some subsequent account of the frustration is offered, e.g. apology (Obuchi et al. 1989) - less likely to get aggression then - 'Common sense' argument - frustrations produce aggressive actions because they are unpleasant (Berkowitz, 1989)

Answer 133

- Violence peaks when temp is highest - Misattribution of arousal? - However also more chance for big groups of people to congregate if there is no rain or cold - Berkowitz (1989) - all unpleasant stimuli increase negative effect, but context and higher order of cognition adjust chances of aggression

Answer 134

Aversive (unpleasant) event: frustration but also heat, pain etc -> Unspecific negative affect with two possible behavioural reactions: fight or flight -> Either: - Aggressive cues or memories? Quick and unconcious association with negative effect - rudimentary anger, activation of associative aggressive network and aggressive response - Fear cues or memories? Quick and unconcious association with negative effect - rudimentary fear, activation of associative fear network and flight/fear response

Answer 135

1) Operant conditioning 2) Modelling e.g. child aggressing towards mother after she has been nagging him to stop watching TV - child's aggression reinforced Positive reinforcement - still watching TV Negative reinforcement - nagging has stopped

Answer 136

- Group 1 - observe adult model making moral judgments - Group 2 - child’s own responses reinforced - Group 3 - no feedback (control) Group 1 made more mature judgments at post-test than Groups 2 and 3 - Modelling >> Reinforcement

Answer 137

- Introduction of TV in British Colombia towns - 3 communities: none, some, limited TV - Total TV watching led to more aggression - not specifically violent programmes

Answer 138

Long term longitudinal correlations of amount of TV watching and level of aggression between 14 and 18/22 years

Answer 139

Meta-analysis: games - Increase aggressive behaviour and decrease prosocial behaviour, increases arousal But - angry people who believe in catharsis are drawn to violent video games (Bushman and Whitaker, 2010)

Answer 140

- Clear effect across longitudinal studies on self-/other-report physical aggression in White participants - Especially with >1yr follow up - Weaker in Asians, null for Hispanic ppts

Answer 141

- Experiment with 126 students - Aggression 24hrs later tested by giving ‘losers’ in task a noise blast - Rumination is key … so more about cognitive element? (e.g. Berkowitz?)

Answer 142

- Settler mentality culturally transmitted through generations (frontier communities from rieving areas, no CJS, wealth can be easily stolen) - “Argument-related” (non-felony) homicides 6x times higher in southern than northern US states - State-wide homicide rate in US is positively correlated with proportion of white population from the south (Blau and Blau 1982) - Southerners endorse violence as legitimate response to insult and for protection (Nisbett, 1993) White males “accidentally” bumped into and insulted by a confederate (Cohen et al. 1996). Southerners more likely to: - Believe their masculine reputation was threatened - Show a rise in cortisol (stress response) - Show a rise in testosterone (dominance challenged) - Engage in dominating behaviour subsequently (chicken game - who steps to one side when walking towards each other)

Answer 143

Symbolic interactionist / impression management approach - ‘Face’ as critical social currency - Rules of conversation require cooperation: “mutual facework” (Goffman 1959) 1. Slight interpreted as intentional attack 2. Negative alter-casting creates unfavourable social identity. 3. Retaliation - deters further attack and saves face - but threatens the face of the other party - Gives rise to escalating “conflict spiral”

Answer 144

Based on 191 episodes of homicide and assault Identity attack: - Wimp Influence attempt: - Take that back Noncompliance: - Make me 3rd party instigation/mediation: - Hit him/ he's not worth it Threat: - I'll kill you Possible evasive action Commitment to violence

Answer 145

Cost of injury < Benefit of success = Aggress

Answer 146

- Particular focus on sex differences - benefits to men and costs to women - The more severe the aggression, the bigger the gender difference - Sex differences appear before 2 years (Potegal and Archer, 2004) - And before children can apply gender labels (Campbell, Shirley and Caygill, 2002) So what are potential benefits to men?

Answer 147

Mate competition = key - Male-male homicide is greater than any other kind in every country - High rank = access to more mates - Physical aggression = high risk/ high gain - High willingness to be aggressive in men - being aggressive in a targeted way when it is required - Adaptive aggression - securing scarce resources - Male primate rank is associated with RS (reproductive success) - e.g. Gelada Baboons (no female choice of mates - males fight among themselves)

Answer 148

Homicide - good indicator of violent behaviour - if there is a corpse and a perpetrator, it is easier to attribute someone to it than other violent crimes

Answer 149

- Humans - Perusse (1986) (female choice) - RHP (resource holding potential) - number of potential conceptions that men had - higher ranked businessmen had more potential conceptions - Humans typically establish status by RHP (jobs, wealth, hunting prowess) - Where RHP is low, males use other means to establish status e.g. physical dominance

Answer 150

Still in mating market - sexually mature but not likely to be married, high testosterone Controlling for age, same-sex violence/ violent crime are more frequent among: - Non-married men and the unemployed (Daly and Wilson 1988) - Non-fathers than fathers (Boothroyd and Cross 2016) - Why? - Offers explanation of male sensitivity to status which other approaches do not explain - Men are very focused on status/face/honour, especially in low SES (socio-economic status)groups

Answer 151

- Aggression as response to inequality/ resource shortage - Violent crime rates are sensitive to poverty - Wolfgang and Ferracuti (1967) argued for a 'subculture of violence' in inner city Philadelphia - cultural context of using violence to resolve things - racist but switch from genetic groupings to cultural groupings (black genetics to black culture) - Daly and Wilson - it is actually a rational response to persistent inequality - lack of status - Schacter et al: US vs Canada - similar levels of gun ownership, but US has higher gun violence as well as higher levels of poverty and inequality

Answer 152

- Useful to be high status as a woman - better resources (infant survival) - Infant survival most dependant on mothers - e.g. Ache infant mortality (Hill and Hurtado, 1996) - Physical aggression = very high risk/ low gain - more gain for men as it enables them to father more children, however it puts women's potential and existing children at a risk that is not worth it - Aversion to aggression in women - Fear of injury as a crucial factor - Women have more blood/animal phobias (Marks, 1987) - Women rate situations as more dangerous than men and have greater fear of physical attack (less risk) (Bettencourt and Miller, 1996)

Answer 153

Female aggression = non-violent/indirect (Bjorkqvist 1994) - achieves ends with safer means, violence only when anger spills over fear threshold Apart from maternal aggression - strong response to reproductive success being threatened

Answer 154

- Men viewed their aggression as instrumental - Women viewed their aggression as expressive - a loss of control - Men can (potentially) gain status/ fitness through aggression - Women only aggressive if worth the risk

Answer 155

Aggression is strongly heritable (40-50% - Very stable over time - Correlation over 1 year = 0.9/0.8 - Correlation over 20 years = 0.4 - Suggests a genetic component - As well as cultural/environmental influences (Moffitt, 2005) and (Caspi et al, 2002)

Answer 156

· Male T>Female T · Male T is highest - when young, when single and when childless (Peter Grey) - exactly the same as violent crime · T levels inversely relate to (unconcious) fear (e.g. van Honk et al, 2005)

Answer 157

- Trans individuals - trans women with T suppressors - less angry, trans men with T - more angry (van Goozen et al, 1995) - either effect of T or people feeling more comfortble conforming to gender roles once body changes - Carre et al (2023) - only in high risk/ dominant men who were already more aggressive than average - Increasing testosterone levels is not the same as naturally having higher or lower testosterone - body accustomed to a certain level - T -> dominance behaviours - Rat injection studies - more T - behavioural dominance - Human competition e.g. tennis, dominoes contests, T rises in anticipation of male-male competition - observers as well as ppts - coalitionary aggression

Answer 158

· Winning vs losing is very important · Tennis players - (Booth et al, 2003) · Football spectators · Randomly assigned sumo-betting (Pound et al, 2009) · Adaptive feedback loop? · Schaal et al (1996) - Adolescent boys - high T - high dominance - low aggression - no one messes with you - not a straight forward relationship between T and aggression

Answer 159

Aggression is associated with poor self-control and high impulsivity (Eisenburg et al, 2001; Moffit et al, 2002) - Testosterone - reduces inhibitory control in experimental rats - Svensson et al (2003), is higher in psychopaths (cannot control impulsive behaviours) - Dolan et al (2001)

Answer 160

- Impulsivity as a mediator for sex differences in aggression - Campbell, 2006; Struber, Luck and Roth, 2008) - Sex differences in impulsivity exist (albeit declining) - Cross, Copping and Campbell, 2010 BUT sensation seeking reversed in matrilineal Mosuo girls, so still cultural effects - people stay in maternal home, women own land , Mosuo girls have higher levels of risk taking in behavioural tasks than boys when first starting school (not exposed to patrilineal families yet)

Answer 161

The principle and practice of concern for the well-being and/or happiness of other humans or animals above oneself

Answer 162

Stabbed multiple times on separate occasions - loads of people heard her screaming but no one called police - why? - Led to social science research into altruism - However - actually because there was not a specific police number and could not coordinate help - neighbours did try to stop attacker

Answer 163

Emergency 1) Notice something is happening - Distraction - Self concerns e.g. being late 2) Interpret event as emergency - Ambiguity - is she really sick or just drunk? - Relationship between attacker and victim - they can resolve their own family quarrels - Pluralistic ignorance - no one else seems worried 3) Take responsibility for providing help - Diffusion of responsibility - someone else must have called 999 4) Decide how to help - Lack of competence - I'm not trained to handle this 5) Provide help - Audience inhibition - I'll look like a fool - Costs exceed rewards - what if I do something wrong and get sued?

Answer 164

- Ppts completed questionnaire alone/ with 2 others - Smoke begins to pour through ventilator - How long till someone reacts? - Alone: 50% leave after 2 mins, 75% leave by 6 mins - Together: 12% leave after 2 mins, 38% leave by 6 mins

Answer 165

Look to others to define ambiguous events - Another form of informational conformity

Answer 166

- Ppts in cubicles with headphones - Take part in discussion - E leaves - One ppt has epileptic fit. Help given within 60 seconds? - Victim + participant = 85% - Victim + participant + 2 = 62% - Victim + participant + 4 = 31%

Answer 167

Responsibility divisible by number present

Answer 168

Bickman (1971) - responsibility not diffused when co-witnesses are clearly not able to help

Answer 169

Moriarty (1975) - responsibility not diffused when specifically attached to a bystander e.g. asking someone to keep an eye on your bag - form specific attachment because they personally were asked, person much more likely to do something if someone tries to take the bag

Answer 170

- Meta-analytic review (105 studies) finds overall effect size of d= -.35 for bystander apathy (small - medium effect size of tendency to not help in artificial scenarios) - Bystander effect is reduced when there is no clear danger (no ambiguity, perpetrator is present, solution requires cooperation) - dangerous emergencies are recognised faster and more clearly as real emergencies, thereby inducing higher levels of arousal and hence more helping - Bystander effect is increased - among females compared to men (lack of confidence in own judgment and ability), among strangers, lab>field, increased number of bystanders (pluralistic ignorance and diffusion of responsibility)

Answer 171

1983, Chennault Park, Louisiana - Saw two boys struggling in the lake - saved them but ended up drowning

Answer 172

- Darwin's puzzle of altruism solved by Hamilton (1963) - The unit of selection is the gene not the individual - Our genes exist in relatives (inclusive fitness) - Individual fitness = number of living children a person can produce - Inclusive fitness = number of copies of a person's genes that can make it into the next generation no matter how they get there (could be through family members) - More altruistic to family members - Coefficient of genetic relatedness should be related to altruism (share more DNA, more altruism)

Answer 173

Offer help where: RS cost to me < RS benefit to you x our relatedness

Answer 174

Share 100% DNA with ourself and only 50% with sibling, so we will prioritise getting benefits for ourself over sibling unless this is no longer useful for us

Answer 175

- More investment given to brother's kids than brother - why? Brother won't have any more kids but his kids will grow up and have children

Answer 176

- Vignettes (moral problems - choosing between people to save) Real life: - Fire at vacation complex (Sime 1983) - analysis of escape behaviour at Summerland, Isle of Man, 1973. 50 of 3000 guests died Families more likely to find each other to get out, friends more likely to get themselves out - people spend longer in a burning building for family members than for friends - Live organ donation to close family members over non-family members (kidney, bone marrow) (Borgida et al 1992)

Answer 177

High genetic relatedness - willingness to help was higher when it was life or death matter

Answer 178

- People more likely to favour offspring and sibling over romantic partner, people more likely to favour romantic partner over cousin, women more likely to favour kin than men - Favour relative regardless of age

Answer 179

- More former campmates, more members of chainmail letter group, part of same Jewish regional grouping, part of same transit to Auschwitz - more likely to survive

Answer 180

- Delayed 'payback' of altruistic acts where - Benefit to recipient high (e.g. parasites removed) - Cost to donor low (e.g. grooming) - Likelihood that positions will be reversed in future

Answer 181

- Social species - Stable groups - Good face recognition - Good long term memory - Non-cooperation with or punishment of defectors - As long as we punish defectors, it is difficult for non-cooperators to become the majority

Answer 182

'If you confess and your partner does not, you are free and your partner gets 10 years' 'If both confess, you each get 3 years' 'If neither confesses, we will put you both away on a lesser charge for a year' 'Same offer is being made to your partner'

Answer 183

- Your partner has realised the same thing as you, hence both behave selfishly and get a mutually bad outcome - The game is 'non-zero sum' i.e. both players can benefit if they choose to cooperate, if they had both co-operated they would both have benefitted - Cooperation is the best strategy

Answer 184

The Evolution of Cooperation, Iterated PD program 'competition' - Tit-for-tat - cooperate on the 1st move, subsequently respond in kind (if they cheat you after this, you cheat them back) - But unintended betrayal triggers endless round of defections so… - Generous Tit-for-Tat - cooperate on the first move, subsequently respond in kind, cooperate on 1/3 defections after (Nowak and Sigmund, 1992, Nature)

Answer 185

Although GT4T may be good overall, a small number of cheaters can benefit from its generosity - Common analogy: Hawks vs Doves: - Hawks in a Dove's world do well vs Doves in a Hawk's world do not - Hawks cheat, doves do not - Can one population be 'taken over' by another? - No - too many hawks - everyone is cheating and it becomes non-profitable, doves can't take over hawks world as there are not enough of them to find each other - GT4T is a good Evolutionary Stable Strategy (ESS)

Answer 186

- Someone helping you - obligation and gratitude - Not paying back - guilt - If someone does not help you back - anger modulates behaviour to not help them again going forward Positive mood enhances likelihood of helping behaviour

Answer 187

- Enjoy endorphins from grooming - Remove parasites from each other RA in primates because of reciprocal grooming

Answer 188

Public goods game for money - competitive altruism and reputation People willing to take a financial hit themselves in order to punish someone for not paying their own fair share Reputational benefits will come back to them in other ways than cheating people for money Publicity involved in giving money to charity - fuels reputation

Answer 189

Vaccinations - group at whole less at risk if everyone gets vaccinated Collective action only works if enough people engage in them e.g. strike action

Answer 190

- EP: Why are we altruistic as a species? What patterns might we therefore expect? Kin - not reciprocity, everyone else - reciprocity - SP: What cognitive mechanisms underlie altruistic behaviour? What social scenarios are most associated with it? - EP gives ultimate causation, SP gives proximate causation