Intelligence Flashcards

Question

What are laypersons' implicit conceptions of an intelligent person in Eastern (non-Western) culture?

Answer 1

Good cognitive skills, good memory but also social, historical and spiritual aspects of everyday interaction. Problem solving skills include not only the individual but also considers (a) family and friends (seeking advice) (b) knowledge of history (knowing how people have approached this problem in the past) (c) own spiritual needs (consequences for the human soul)

Answer 2

Unintended effect of reshaping cultural definitions introduced by Western IQ tests in Korea.

Answer 3

(Ideal intelligent baby): - Able to recognize people and objects - Shows signs of motor coordination - Shows levels of awareness - Makes some verbalisations

Answer 4

Verbal abilities Evidence of an ability to learn Awareness of people and environment Motor coordination Curiosity

Answer 5

(a) ability to deal with novelty (b) everyday competence (c) verbal competence

Answer 6

Ability to deal with novelty was emphasised as important for a hypothetical young adult (30 years) Everyday competence was emphasised as important for a hypothetical older adult (70 years).

Answer 7

Knowledge Ability to use knowledge To weigh up possible alternatives To see analogies

Answer 8

Critical and logical abilities Ability to follow complex arguments To find errors in arguments and generate new arguments

Answer 9

Precise mathematical thinking Ability to relate physical phenomena to the concepts of physics To grasp the laws of nature quickly

Answer 10

Ability to think logically To focus on essential aspects of a problem To follow others' arguments and see where they lead

Answer 11

Special ability usually accompanied by prodigious memory Approx. 1 in 10 persons with autistic disorder show some savant skills - Treffert (2009)

Answer 12

Nadia Chomyn - struggled to talk but had exceptional drawing skills at 5 years old Brittany Maier - was mute but started to sing beautifully and could memorise songs very quickly Kim Peek - could memorise thousands of facts, read one page with left eye and one page with right eye, but could not dress himself and struggled socially

Answer 13

Usually no Extraordinary but narrow mental ability is not what is usually considered evidence of high intelligence by many researchers However, savant research raises questions on the existence of multiple intelligences in the areas where savants appear, e.g. music, mathematics, art, mnemonics etc., even in the face of low IQ scores

Answer 14

Specific - verbal, mechanical, spatial, maths General intelligence (g) - combination

Answer 15

People tend to do well on everything else

Answer 16

Test score based on subset of mental abilities for everyday intelligence - good predictor of intelligence

Answer 17

A statistical result Used to refer to: general intelligence general cognitive ability general mental ability Some posit g-factor is more biological / genetic e.g. Haier (2022)

Answer 18

Single score representing range of mental abilities Can be influenced by social & cultural factors, for example Large sample of IQ scores are normally distributed

Answer 19

The bell curve

Answer 20

Mean = 100 SD = 15

Answer 21

Between 85 - 115 68% of people

Answer 22

40-55 = 0.1% 55-70 = 2% 70-85 = 14% 85-100 = 34% 100-115 = 34% 115-130 = 14% 130-145 = 2% 145-160 = 0.1%

Answer 23

Differential psychology Experimental psychology (together with Wundt)

Answer 24

Intelligence = dealing with information gained through the senses (‘idiotic’ people are unable to distinguish colours, heat and cold, etc.) Galton’s interest: showing that individuals differ in intelligence

Answer 25

The intelligence test (response to sensory information, reaction times) Studied families - hereditary intelligence

Answer 26

Measuring differences in mental ability - Galton "Anthropometric Laboratory”, London 1885 9000 sets of data for different ppl. to obtain representative sample Galton figured his statistical analyses would only be reliable with large sample

Answer 27

Taking Galton’s view on the importance of the ‘senses’ for intelligence Began to measure “simple mental processes” He published a provisional list of 10 ‘mental tests’ designed to measure individual differences e.g. sensation, weight discrimination, reaction times (whatever tests were at his disposal)

Answer 28

Wissler (1901) using new correlation stats perfected by Karl Pearson (from Galton’s ideas) compared Cattell’s ‘mental test’ scores in UG’s with their college grades.

Answer 29

Wissler found no correlation between these tests, and tests did not correlate with college grades (though grades on one course corelated well with grades on others)

Answer 30

When trying to devise a test of intelligence, one must have some independent criterion of intelligence with which the test can agree

Answer 31

French government commissioned Binet to design an intelligence test for children to identify students requiring alternative educational provision Pragmatic approach, relying more on practicality, common sense, coping with the day-to-day world

Answer 32

1905 Binet created the first intelligence test (for children) The Binet-Simon scale included 30 short everyday-related tasks: Following a light match with your eyes Naming parts of the body Counting coins Naming objects in a picture Recalling a number of digits after being shown a long list Word definitions Filling in missing words in a sentence

Answer 33

An independent criterion of intellectual competence e.g. 4 year olds can copy a square but not a diamond - build up characterisation for each population to create a figure of normal intelligence Final set of tests (Binet & Simon 1911) from 3 – 10 years of age

Answer 34

A mental age of 6 was the average score obtained by lots of 6-year-olds A 5-year-old with a mental age of 6 was advanced, but a 10-year-old with a mental age of 6 was behind

Answer 35

The Binet Scales formed the basis for modern IQ tests, just as mental age formed the basis for IQ scores The use of age in psychological testing is one of Binet‘s lasting contributions

Answer 36

Coined the term intelligence quotient (IQ)

Answer 37

To see if child is developing normally – examine the ratio of child’s mental age to physical age IQ Score: (Mental age ÷ Physical age) x 100 Mental age is averaged across all subtests, (x 100) avoids dealing with fractions

Answer 38

Hard to assess after age 16

Answer 39

No They both score above average relative to their peers of the same age IQ scores are only meaningful relative to people of same age

Answer 40

IQ scores are not absolute measures, like centimetres of height or kilometres of distance IQ is an ordinal measure where we are simply rank-ordering people There is no zero for IQ, as there is for height or distance Someone with an IQ of 120 is not twice as intelligent as another with an IQ of 60 To say that someone has an IQ of 130 is to say their score lies in the top 2.5% of a representative sample of people of the same age

Answer 41

1916: Lewis Terman produced a Stanford revision of the Binet-Simon scale: the Stanford-Binet test (now on 5th edition) still remains one of the standard tests of intelligence to this day Virtually a new test for Binet’s with forty new items added with far more children tested in each age group

Answer 42

These tests with trained examiners were clunky to administer and certain answers open to interpretation

Answer 43

Yerkes with the help of Terman and Goddard designed a new IQ test for use by US army 2 tests - alpha and beta Questions were timed and multiple-choice style Beta test designed for illiterate groups Simple tasks as quickly as possible

Answer 44

The army tests transformed public opinion to mental tests Yerkes published a new Intelligence Test in 1919 Tests were used everywhere (schools, universities, business firms, clinical settings) 1.75M were tested – huge sample

Answer 45

e.g. measuring aggression in children - instead of following them around for a week and counting the number of shoving behaviours, better solution might be to develop a set of questions or tasks highly correlated with shoving: - Do you think most people need a good punch in the face from time to time? - How quickly can you decapitate this doll? Hypothetical property of anger leads to a consequential behaviour of shoving which correlates with response to answers to questions or performance on task e.g. Hypothetical property of intelligence, consequential behaviour of job performance, response to IQ test (performance)

Answer 46

Measuring consequential behaviour is usually not very efficient Using a test has several advantages: Easy to do Less time consuming Larger samples Standardised

Answer 47

Exapnded - Especially in US – great expansion in IQ tests – lots of rival tests

Answer 48

Buros started publishing a yearbook, listing all mental tests, e.g. 1978 edition included 100 intelligence / mental tests

Answer 49

1939 Wechsler-Bellevue Scale. Revised in 1955 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Taken over the Stanford-Binet test as the most widely used IQ test today

Answer 50

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) – latest edition (IV) standardised among 2200 adults (16-90 years) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) – for children (5-16 years)

Answer 51

Created to profile his patients in the clinic Wechsler was sceptical that the Stanford-Binet relied heavily on verbal ability and only used a single score His test tapped into range of cognitive abilities (reflecting his believe there were many aspects to intelligence) - wanted to capture multiple intelligences Current version WAIS-IV released in 2008 with fifth edition set for release in 2024 WAIS-R Subtests to measure several different aspects of intelligence (including 6 verbal and 5 performance tests) 15 varied tests given to 1800 adults found people who were good at one of the 15 tests tended to be good at the other 14

Answer 52

Verbal - information, comprehension, arithmetic, digit span, similarities, vocabulary Performance - picture arrangement, picture completion, block design, object assembly, symbol search (perceptual speed)

Answer 53

Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed

Answer 54

15 different mental tests (wide range of mental effort) Many hundreds of pounds to buy Can only be bought by certified people, e.g. educational, clinical, occupational psychologists Administered by trained psychological tester working one to one for up to 2 hours Like a clinical performance interview of the patient for two hours

Answer 55

Similarities Vocabulary Information Comprehension Block design Matrix reasoning Visual puzzles Figure weights Picture completion Digit span Arithmetic Letter-number sequencing Symbol search Coding Cancellation

Answer 56

Say what two words have in common. For example: In what way are an apple and a pear alike? In what way are a painting and a symphony alike? How are whales and lions similar? (18 questions)

Answer 57

Tell the tester what certain words mean. For example: chair (easy), hesitant (medium), presumptuous (hard). (30 words)

Answer 58

General knowledge questions covering people, places, and events. For example: How many days are in a week? What is the capital of France? Name three oceans. Who wrote The Iliad? What imaginary line divides the planet earth into north and south hemisphere? (26 questions)

Answer 59

Answer questions about everyday-life problems, aspects of society, and proverbs. For example: Tell me some reasons why we put food in a refrigerator. Why do people require driving licences? What does it mean to say ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’? (18 questions)

Answer 60

While looking at a two-dimensional pattern made up of red and white squares and triangles, try to reproduce the pattern using cubes with red and white faces, and faces that are diagonally half-red and half-white. (14 patterns)

Answer 61

Find the missing element in a pattern that is built up in a logical manner. (26 questions)

Answer 62

There is a shape at the top of each page. Below it are six part-shapes. Find the three part-shapes that can be put together to make the shape at the top of the page. (26 questions)

Answer 63

Choose the correct objects to balance a scale in weight. (27 questions)

Answer 64

Spot the missing element in a series of colour drawings. For example: that spokes are missing from one wheel in a picture of a bicycle; that one buttonhole is missing from a jacket in a picture of a person. As in the earlier tests in the collection, the questions become progressively more difficult. (24 drawings)

Answer 65

Repeat a sequence of numbers to the examiner. Sequences run from 2 to 9 numbers in length. An easy example is to repeat 3–7–4; harder is 3–9–1–7–4–5–3–9. In the second part of this test the sequences must be repeated in reverse order, e.g. 24-3-7-12 backwards is 12-7-3-24 (Maximum of 16 forward and 16 reversed sequences)

Answer 66

Solve mental arithmetic problems. These involve simple counting, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and percentages. (22 questions)

Answer 67

The examiner reads a list (as short as two, or as long as eight) of alternate letters and numbers. The person being tested must repeat them, putting the numbers first and in numerical order, followed by the letters in alphabetical order. (Maximum of 30 trials)

Answer 68

Identify, from a list of abstract symbols, which symbol in a given pair of target symbols is contained in the list. Assesses information processing speed and visual perception. (As many as can be completed correctly in two minutes)

Answer 69

Write down the symbol that corresponds to a given number. (As many as can be completed correctly in two minutes)

Answer 70

In a large sheet of paper with pink triangles and squares and blue triangles and squares, put a pencil line through each blue square and each pink triangle. There is a second sheet with red or yellow stars and circles. (The time to finish each sheet is taken)

Answer 71

Seeing similarities and differences Working out and applying rules Drawing inferences Working out how to construct shapes Working with numbers, attending to details Explaining practical actions in everyday life Recalling general knowledge Articulating the meaning of words Processing simple information at speed Remembering and manipulating mental material

Answer 72

0.45 Highest = 0.74 (vocab and comprehensions) Lowest = 0.21 All positive correlations

Answer 73

Verbal comprehension (0.7) Perceptual reasoning (0.52) Working memory (0.62) Processing speed (0.51)

Answer 74

Level 1 = individual cognitive tests Level 2 = cognitive domains Level 3 = g

Answer 75

Assess intelligence for all people and all ages

Answer 76

Wechsler carefully stratified by age as well as by other standard demographic characteristics (sex, social class, region of the country), so an IQ score on WAIS is simply a reflection of an individual’s relative standing with respect to others within the same cohort

Answer 77

(Actual test score ÷ expected test score for that age) × 100 > All ranges for intelligence scores for all ages were transformed so they had a middle score of 100

Answer 78

Standard Progressive Matrices first published 1938 Non-verbal approach. Identify missing elements in pattern (in the form of matrices) Paper and pencil, multiple choice test (large groups can be tested at same time). 60 items increasing in difficulty in each of the 5 blocks

Answer 79

Freer of cultural, language differences, and better for deaf (minimum of instructions)

Answer 80

Focussed on one class of test believed to measure abstract reasoning and nothing else. Very different from Wechsler tests. Eductive ability (Latin “educere” meaning to “to draw out”) – think clearly, make sense of complexity Reproductive ability – to store and reproduce ability Figuring out the underlying rules that explain the progression of shapes

Answer 81

Very different from WAIS – yet still the correlations between WAIS and Raven’s between 0.40 and 0.75 (Burke, 1958, 1985; Court and Raven, 1995)

Answer 82

Mental abilities encompass Intelligence which encompasses IQ which encompasses g

Answer 83

It is predictive of intelligence, but just a score

Answer 84

Task of factor analysis is to group variables that are most related, or correlated Measure the hidden/latent variable by grouped observed variables More complex method of defining an operational definition – not using a single variable (but several) to define the unobservable factor, e.g. g-factor or general cognitive ability

Answer 85

Measure / quantify psychological phenomenon Trying to use measurable items to capture unseen psychological process: - Behavioural observations - Questionnaires - Patient assessment - Test scores

Answer 86

To measure constructs like depression or intelligence - need to find items that relate closely to these constructs (validity) Items need to be consistent across samples and time If items reliably measuring the same process, e.g. depression or intelligence, they should all be related to each other Because we often want to create a single score for each person and trust that score is measuring e.g. high depression g factor as driving unobserved test results 50% of variance in intelligence worldwide is attributed to g factor

Answer 87

How much variance in the construct is explained by the group of factors

Answer 88

Gives us the loadings of the factors (row) on the variables (column) – this rotation clusters the variables so that certain variables load as high as possible (and other variables load as low as possible) on each factor

Answer 89

1904 Spearman observed children's performance ratings, across seemingly unrelated subjects, were positively correlated

Answer 90

Followed pioneering work by Galton using correlations Developed the earliest version of factor analysis Coined the term g or the g-factor Developed his 2-factor theory of intelligence

Answer 91

‘Under certain conditions the score of a person at a mental test can be divided into two factors, one of which is always the same in all tests (g factor), whereas the other varies from one test to another (specific factor)

Answer 92

Verbal Mechanical Spatial Math

Answer 93

Underlying all the positive correlations. g is the intelligence required for performance of intelligence tests of all types. The mental energy/ cognitive horsepower that underlies specific factors of intelligence. A person’s mathematical ability is not only affected by one‘s specific ability to perform a mathematical task but is also largely determined by that person‘s general intelligence

Answer 94

Fluid and crystallized intelligence

Answer 95

Primary reasoning ability Abstract Not cultural Better tested by Raven’s matrices e.g. inductive reasoning in abstract sequences Fluid intelligence refers to reasoning and novel problem-solving ability - strongly associated with working memory

Answer 96

Acquired knowledge/skills Related to cultural/historical background of individuals Better tested by Weschler scales e.g. vocabulary, social rules Crystallized intelligence refers to overlearned skills and static knowledge such as vocabulary and factual knowledge It is generally related to a person’s stored information and to their cultural influences…Crystallised intelligence (for example knowledge) is intelligence that increases throughout life and is a reflection of one’s cumulative learning experience

Answer 97

Single process of general intelligence (g) which permeates all intellectual activities g is a mathematical construct = level of correlations between cognitive tasks

Answer 98

To take knowledge that might be adaptive to help us survive and store it for later use

Answer 99

Average human brain has about 86 billion neurons Each neuron can be connected to up to 10,000 other neurons Estimates of between 100 and 1,000 trillion synapses!!! How can we begin to understand how this complex network gives rise to complex psychological phenomena?

Answer 100

Breaking down psychology to its simplest elements Stimulus-response associations Brain is a sealed black box that you can’t look inside Input stimulus and output stimulus (some kind of observable behaviour) Indifferent to what went on in the brain - just theoretical

Answer 101

Brain cell size to detect oscillations, myelin, higher IQ = longer and more complex dendrites

Answer 102

No - brain wide process

Answer 103

Based on the findings of factor-analytic studies that have looked at the various psychometric properties of intelligence scales. Describes how people tend to differ but it cannot explain why. Focused on whether people answer items correctly

Answer 104

The cognitive approach is based on another set of intelligence tests that highlight biological and physiological processes involved in intelligence (lab based). Focused on how people answer the items, and why some people are better than others at various mental abilities. Underlying cognitive information-processing Like a computer - efficiency of problem-solving will be partly dependent on the limits of memory storage and speed of processing.

Answer 105

Elementary cognitive tasks (ECTs) are simple tasks to measure cognitive processes, such as understanding stimulus, stimulus discrimination, visual search, retrieval of information / perceptual speed, etc. - How well a person can manipulate information in the abstract rather than influences by prior knowledge - Measuring 'simple decisions' (small number of mental processes) - IQ could be broken down into these building blocks

Answer 106

- Median reaction time (average response time over a number of trials) - Standard deviation of reaction time (RTSD) (individual variability in response time over a number of trials) - Inspection time (IT) / Evoked potential (EP) – the time people take to process (visual or auditory) information.

Answer 107

A shorter delay However - Variability of reaction time more crucial than average reaction time

Answer 108

With traditional measures of intelligence, correlations average at about r = .35 Overall scores based on the use of various ECTs with different measures of response times are found to correlate with scores on general intelligence tests of between r = .50 and r = .70

Answer 109

No - this makes them useful

Answer 110

Common procedure in psychometric testing Measuring people’s choice reaction times with various numbers of choices - Slope indicates efficiency of a person’s mental processing - Hypothesis: high psychometric intelligence = flatter slope….however - Being steady is important! Higher IQ scores = less variable response times - Conclusion: simple cognitive processes underpin complex thinking Quick reaction time as task gets more complex - less steep slope - higher intelligence Higher IQ's = less variability

Answer 111

Working memory is basic to intelligence differences (Miyake et al., 2001) General fluid intelligence and working memory both reflect the ability to keep a representation active, particularly in the face of interference and distraction (Kyllonen & Christal, 1990)

Answer 112

A typical measurement of working memory List of letters, have to remember a certain amount of letters previous

Answer 113

High correlations between working memory tasks and psychometric intelligence Tests of working memory are very similar in format and content to standard psychometric tests

Answer 114

1938: Thurstone applied a different statistical method – involved weighing the observed variables (e.g. scores on different ability subtests) differently This yielded not one but a set of “primary mental abilities” Most tests were positively correlated BUT scores on verbal tests were more highly correlated with other scores on other verbal tests than with scores on spatial tests Verbal and verbal correlate, spatial and spatial correlate

Answer 115

This might suggest that there is no such thing as “g” - Clusters of correlations suggest primary mental abilities. (Not specific abilities)

Answer 116

Word fluency Verbal comprehension Numerical ability Spatial visualisation Perceptual speed Memory Inductive reasoning

Answer 117

Thurstone de-emphasised ‘g’ and suggested instead that there were a number of stable and independent mental abilities, which were not general like g – e.g. a person might have weak verbal ability and strong numerical ability. He suggested each person possesses different levels of these seven factors, and these levels do not depend on one another (however the seven were positively correlated even in his own dataset!!)

Answer 118

g is domain general and primary mental abilities are domain specific

Answer 119

Using scissors and juggling abilities are highly correlated and have the mid level ability of physical co-ordination Same with essay writing and time management - academic skill

Answer 120

John Carroll book (1993) 800 pages long! – mammoth task of reanalysing over 400 sets of reliable data on human mental ability testing 130,000 healthy adults, school children, infants, university students, people with learning disabilities and people with mental and physical illness His analysis was summarised in a diagram he called the ‘three stratum model’ of human cognitive ability

Answer 121

They were both kind of right

Answer 122

g = stratum 3 Cognitive domain (e.g. fluid or crystallised intelligence) = stratum 2 Cognitive task (several narrower abilities from each domain) = stratum 1

Answer 123

They are good overall (have high general intelligence) They are good at that sort of test (high ability for that cognitive domain) They are good at that specific test (high ability for specific cognitive task) Chance favoured them on that particular testing day Criticises Spearman's idea of g as genetic and relatively unchanging

Answer 124

Yes: Warne and Burningham (2019) 31 non-western nations 97 samples with 52,340 people tested almost all of them showed a general cognitive factor g accounted for 46% of variance (same as western samples)

Answer 125

Education Workplace Health

Answer 126

1944: In UK, intelligence tests widely used to select children at 11+ years into an educational ‘strand’ (academic, technical or functional) Idea was that skills were more important than a pupil’s financial resources and that different skills required different schooling Results of the tests used to match children’s abilities to their schools

Answer 127

Intention was for the 11+ to be like an IQ test consisting of 3 papers: Arithmetic, Writing, General Problem Solving (sometimes with an added Verbal paper). Most tests multiple choice (40-60 minutes long) The reality was that the required specialist schools were not available at the scale required so the 11+ came to be a fierce competition for places at desirable grammar schools The passing or failing took on extra emphasis and become resented by many (was phased out by most of UK by 1976)

Answer 128

Used for estimating student progress within the context of how well a school is performing

Answer 129

74,403 children (37,509 girls, 36,894 boys) 973 secondary schools across 103 LEAs (1/5 of total national dataset) CAT test scores 1997 vs GCSEs 2002 Correlation of 0.81 However, no difference in CAT scores at 11 but huge sex differences in GCSE's at 16

Answer 130

There were significant sex differences (p<0.001) in virtually all GCSE scores Girls performed better in every topic except Physics. The effect sizes of the sex differences were often substantial (Art & Design had a Cohen’s d of 0.61!!) Girls and boys did not differ in g but girls scored higher on residual verbal factor

Answer 131

- Companies use a lot of money in recruiting - especially if they recruit the wrong person - Issues with work trials - could be not used to the role yet, could find out the role is not for them - Main issue - very expensive to conduct - not very logistically possible - Intelligence tests are a lot cheaper and easier - Gold standard - cognitive ability and psychometric test, supplement with work placements and other tests if you can

Answer 132

Psychometric intelligence test = good Age and job experience = bad

Answer 133

Much criticism of this view based on lack of representative samples (lots of military data and adult UK and US data) and poor quality data

Answer 134

Higher IQ for higher ranking occupations and vice versa Difference between the highest and lowest mean intelligence estimates amounts to almost two standard deviations (physical scientists, with 114 vs. packers, bottlers, canners and fillers, with 87)

Answer 135

Prof Sir Godfrey Thomson and cohort of Moray house tests (Scottish mental surveys test) Ian Deary On average people did better at 77 than they did at age 11 11 vs 77 scores = 0.63 (large correlation) This lifetime-long intelligence association been replicated lots with larger samples (correlation ~0.70) As sample increased - correlation got higher However there were outliers

Answer 136

Systematic review – found 150ish studies looking for risks or protections against cognitive decline Found some evidence of risks: > APOE gene = higher cognitive decline > Smoking > Depression > Diabetes

Answer 137

> Mediterranean diet > Eating more vegetable > Being in more professional occupations > Taking part in some leisure activities

Answer 138

Traced the Aberdeen sample (2792 children – 79.9%) via health records to vital status as of January 1997 Basically, looked to see if they were dead or alive up to 76 years On average a girl with a 30 point disadvantage in IQ at age 11 was half as likely to be alive (More intelligent men entered 2nd World War)

Answer 139

As intelligence decreases, the risk of CVD is higher As the intelligence test score at age 11 becomes higher and higher, the risk of death from this cause by age 79 steadily lowers.

Answer 140

Intelligence score at 11

Answer 141

Intelligence test scores at childhood already hint at departure from optimum health Higher childhood intelligence leads to better education, jobs, and might have health advantages including being in safer environments Intelligence test scores at childhood might represent better wired body overall, from birth or even earlier ‘system integrity’ Higher childhood intelligence associated with uptake of healthier behaviours and lifestyles

Answer 142

Yes, but not alzheimer's disease

Answer 143

Higher intelligence test scores in youth were associated with lower risk of: High blood pressure (20%) Diabetes (15%) Lung Disease (29%) Congestive Heart failure (34%) Stroke (35%) Also reported that those with 15 IQ point youth advantage less likely at 50 to smoke, drink heavily but more likely to workout etc

Answer 144

Data was taken from 3 intelligence tests: the Moray House Test No 12 and two non-verbal tests (picture tests) – scores on all 3 were summed to give an overall IQ score (mean of 100 and SD of 15) Larger number of girls in middle-scoring groups (90-110). Only small % difference Larger number of boys in lower scoring group (just under 60). % difference between girls and boys = 17.2 percent Larger number of boys in higher scoring group (130-140). % difference between girls and boys (red arrow) 15.4 percent No difference in average intelligence of females (n = ~40k) and males (n = ~40k) at age 11 years However, there were sex differences in the spread of IQ scores More girls have IQ scores around the mean Boys IQ scores more distributed at the lower and higher levels of intelligence

Answer 145

More recent study – post-adolescent American adults Selected opposite-sex siblings from the overall sample to look at sex differences between them Selecting opposite sex siblings matches them on family background and to some extent genetic factors Participants took intelligence test called the Armed Forces Qualification Test with four subtests: arithmetic, word knowledge paragraph comprehension and mathematics knowledge. A general intelligence score was calculated Males show very small but significant advantage on the g factor extracted from the Armed Forces Qualification Test. Note, the effect size was tiny (Cohen’s d = 0.064). Mean IQ scores were also significant but the difference equated to less than 1 IQ point between males and females – negligible! A more marked difference was again in the spread of scores. Like the Scottish 11 year olds these more recently born US adults showed more males at the lower and higher extremes than females (but the overall means were the same).

Answer 146

Huge dataset representative of UK school children aged 11-12 years. Overall intelligence test score favoured girls by about three quarters of an IQ point. However, as with the Scottish 1932 11 year olds, there is a greater proportion of girls around the middle and greater proportion of boys around the extreme ends

Answer 147

x linked mutations

Answer 148

RPM assumed to be good measure of general intelligence (non reliance on language) - Review of 120 studies prior to 1980 concluded there were no male-female differences in RPM (Court 1983) - 2 meta-analyses concluded that in adults, men score higher than women by around 4.5-5 IQ points (Lynn & Irwing 2004, Irwing & Lynn 2005) However, the male:female ratio in each sample didn’t match the male:female ratio for that country (recruitment effect could distort results) Conclusions are therefore limited Claimed that the male-female difference in RPM scores favouring males emerges from age 15 years onwards However, while the sex difference in RPM scores is significant, the effect is small. Conclusion: average difference between male and female Raven’s scores (g) if existent is very small. Otherwise, it would show up more clearly in national samples.

Answer 149

Issue with using RPM as a pure measure of g for male-female differences is that the scores contain a significant visuospatial reasoning component (which we will find out, there are moderate to large male-female differences in some types of visuospatial reasoning, which could drive the differences instead of g).

Answer 150

CAT3 has nine tests broken down into 3 cognitive domains: verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning and non-verbal reasoning > Verbal reasoning Girls did better than boys by 0.15 of a standard deviation in verbal ability, which is equivalent to just over 2 IQ points. More girls at the higher end. More boys at the lower end.

Answer 151

> Quantitative reasoning Boys did better than girls by 0.03 of a standard deviation in quantitative reasoning, which is equivalent to less than half an IQ point

Answer 152

> Non-verbal reasoning Girls did better than boys by 0.03 of a standard deviation in non-verbal reasoning, which is equivalent to less than half an IQ point

Answer 153

On average, women do better than men (-ve values) in tests of reading comprehension, perceptual speed and associative memory On average, men do better than women (+ve values) in tests of mathematics and visuospatial reasoning

Answer 154

Large sex differences in writing (females better than males)

Answer 155

Men: (mainly spatial) Visualisation Spatial orientation (mental rotation) Throwing accuracy Visual interference Mathematical reasoning Women: (mainly verbal) Perceptual speed Object location memory Word fluency Fine motor coordination Numerical calculation

Answer 156

Meta-analysis: Across all ages, men score higher on spatial abilities (small to medium effect size) → medium to large effect size for mental rotation On average, men perform better on tests of spatial ability than women do → Spatial ability is the ability to visualise spatial relationships and to mentally manipulate objects → … such as spatial visualisation, visual interference and mental rotation

Answer 157

Meta-analysis: In women of all ages, the only effect size above .20 is for verbal production → effect size for verbal abilities is so small that it can be considered not to exist On average, women do better on verbal ability than men. → … such as comprehension (the act of understanding the meaning, nature or importance of things) and language vocabulary (knowledge of words in a particular language)

Answer 158

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is an endocrine disorder associated with elevated levels of free testosterone. - Polycystic women demonstrated worse performance on tests of verbal fluency, verbal memory, manual dexterity, and visuospatial working memory than healthy control women. - No differences between groups were found on tests of mental rotation, spatial visualization, spatial perception, or perceptual speed. → Women with elevations in testosterone levels reveal poorer performance on cognitive tests that show a female advantage.

Answer 159

Girls performed better in maths test when they were told that any anxiety could result from negative stereotypes that have nothing to do with their actual ability

Answer 160

Males - Hunting - navigating back from covering great differences - hippocampus differences, requiring to track prey - constantly changing orientation - Range size - Warfare Females - Foraging - details over large open spaces

Answer 161

'On its own, DNA is not a cause in an active sense. I think it is better described as a passive data base which is used by the organism to enable it to make the proteins that it requires.'

Answer 162

Environmental factors influence the expression of genetic code generations later

Answer 163

Comparing different twins provides natural experiment Can compare people of the same age In some cases they have same genetic make-up and in some they share half If identical twins are more similar to each other on intelligence test scores than non-identical twins, we can infer that genes play a role

Answer 164

Common in twin studies to divide the environment into: > Shared (common to both) > Non-shared (unique to each) Effect of genes on measurable traits (height, extraversion, intelligence etc.)

Answer 165

One compares the variation of IQ scores within a twin pair, and the variation of IQ scores between multiple twin pairs (Same calculations can be done for dizygotic twins)

Answer 166

How similar identical and non-identical twins tend to be on the trait in question

Answer 167

Shared environment makes the same contribution Assumed that genetic effect similarity has twice as much effect in monozygotic twins (therefore reported differences multiplied by 2)

Answer 168

Dataset from multiple twin studies 4809 monozygotic twin pairs and 5880 dizygotic twin pairs Four web-based cognitive tests. Three from WAIS for children and one Raven’s Matrices General intelligence score calculated Mean correlation (MZ) = 0.78 Mean correlation (DZ) = 0.51 Difference between twin types: = 0.78 – 0.51 = 0.27 Therefore 54% of the differences in intelligence caused by genetic differences (Twice the difference between MZ and DZ correlations, i.e. 0.27 x 2 = 0.54) 24% of differences caused by shared environment (MZ correlation of 0.78 minus the genetic effect of 0.54) 22% of differences caused by non-shared environment (1 minus MZ correlation of 0.78)

Answer 169

About half the differences in intelligence are caused by genetic differences, half by environment

Answer 170

% of intelligence differences caused by genetic factors increases with age Genetic contribution to people’s differences in intelligence is larger in adulthood (66%) than in childhood (41%) and larger in adolescence (55%) than childhood Contribution of shared environment declines from 33% in childhood to 18% in adolescence and to 16% in adulthood Contribution of non-shared environment remains quite stable (around a 1/4th or 1/5th across the age range)

Answer 171

One theory is that environments are more similar for any given pair of 65 year olds than a pair of 4 year olds so any differences in older people must be due to their genes Another theory is that as children grow up, they increasingly select, modify and even create their experiences, which are based on their genetic propensities

Answer 172

139 twins pairs raised apart 76% intelligence concordance (MZ twins raised together have 86%)

Answer 173

Jack and Oskar - Jack raised as a Jew in Trinidad and Oskar grew up in Nazi Germany and joined the Hitler youth Reunited - other sides of political spectrum, but probably would have behaved in the same way if they were in opposite situations

Answer 174

MZ twins reared together MZ twins reared apart DZ twins reared together Biological siblings reared together Parents and children living together Biological siblings reared apart

Answer 175

Human genome estimated to comprise of 3 billion nucleotides of DNA within 23 chromosome pairs 3 billion stretch has some structure Genes – stretches of DNA coding for proteins About 19,000 genes in human DNA Genes code for proteins (made of amino acids) Across the 3 billion stretch there are differences between ppl. At any one site, there is the commonest nucleotide for a given population. Ppl. have a different nucleotide at about 1 in every thousand places, so a person likely to have 4-5 million places in DNA differing from the most usual nucleotide (called single nucleotide polymorphisms - SNPs)

Answer 176

There were 11,600 significant SNPs, i.e. the number of single nucleotide variants related to intelligence test scores Large numbers of genetic variants in a large number of genes related to people’s intelligence scores The heritability of intelligence using this method (25%) is about half of that found using twin studies – gap should shorten with more genetic variation studies Using people’s DNA, one can predict better than chance their intelligence differences - currently prediction not strong but should get better with more and more data Still early days with other genetic variants other than SNPs to be studied Also found some of the genetic variants related to intelligence also related to body and health traits including brain volume and longevity

Answer 177

Cognitive abilities remain relatively stable from 25 to 65 years of age, then there is a decline

Answer 178

Validity refers to the question of whether the test measures what it claims to measure.

Answer 179

An IQ test is said to have face validity if it "looks like" it is going to measure what it is supposed to measure

Answer 180

Intelligence test shows concurrent validity if it shows a (positive) relationship with other measures of intelligence.

Answer 181

Intelligence tests have been used to predict ‘real-world‘ measures of intelligence or achievement (e.g. school achievement, job performance, etc.)

Answer 182

Any measure of intelligence with good internal reliability will have a number of items that correlate positively with one other, this suggests they are measures of the same construct.

Answer 183

A good intelligence test will show a good level of reliability over time. Your general intelligence is thought to be relatively stable over time. You would expect IQ scores to be very similar across test sessions.

Answer 184

The scores on intelligence tests have a tendency to fluctuate. The scores of intelligence tests change continuously from year to year. Flynn (1981) discovered a year-on-year rise of intelligence test scores (whenever a new/revised IQ test was compared to an older/previous IQ test). In particular, Flynn found that if a group of participants averaged an IQ of 100 on the original WISC (1947/1948), they averaged 108 on the WISC-R (1972). → in a period of 24 years the IQ gain from WISC to WISC-R was ~8 IQ points

Answer 185

The highest rise in IQ occurred in the non-verbal tests (fluid intelligence; 5.9 IQ points per decade) and lowest gains were in verbal tests (crystallised intelligence; 3.7 IQ points per decade) → Due to better schooling? (However, IQ gains in verbal vs. non-verbal IQ should be reversed)

Answer 186

NOT Generations are getting more and more intelligent → unlikely, we would expect to find more geniuses in the world → these gains are far too rapid to result from genetic changes NOT Length of schooling → important, but mainly relevant for verbal tests NOT Test-taking sophistication (people become more familiar with IQ tests) → does not explain the difference between verbal and non-verbal IQ tests PROBABLY NOT Child-rearing practices (parents are more interested in their children‘s intellectual development) → some evidence, but educational programs have probably no lasting effects on IQ PROBABLY NOT Cognitive stimulation hypothesis (visual and technical environment, TV learning) → little direct evidence PROBABLY Nutrition (e.g. nutrition has been linked to brain size) Nutrition as most plausible - cortical thickening and bigger brain - more intelligence in humans

Answer 187

Brain structure (MRI) > different types of brain tissue a person has > can indicate how healthy brain tissue is Brain function (fMRI) > blood flow changes during mental tasks Electroencephalographic (EEG, or brain waves) and brain evoked response methods > electrical activity at rest / in response to stimuli Magnetoencephalography (MEG) methods > magnetic activity from electrical activity of brain

Answer 188

672 people around the age of 73 years 15 cognitive tests – many of them from WAIS General intelligence (g) score calculated MRI scans to measure to measure different types of structure in the brain Correlations with g: Total brain volume = 0.31 Brain cortical thickness = 0.24 Brain white matter integrity = 0.24 Brain white matter intensities = -0.20

Answer 189

Total volume inside skull minus cerebrospinal fluid. How much brain, of any type of tissue, inside skull

Answer 190

Thickness of the brains’ grey matter – largely the neurons of the brain (info. processors)

Answer 191

Connecting network of ‘wires’ in the brain – the axons connecting nerve cells to one another. Lies mostly below grey matter of the cortex

Answer 192

Scars in the brain’s connections. More develop as we age. Could interrupt efficient processing

Answer 193

Superior IQ group has a thinner superior prefrontal cortex at the earliest age Rapid increase in cortical thickness in the superior IQ group (peaking at age 13, waning in late adolescence (Dynamic neuroanatomical expression of intelligence) - Thickening of cerebral cortex - closest measure to intelligence of participants - Trajectory for superior IQ = thinning then thickening

Answer 194

- White matter - like straws - no holes, no dints, so that info (liquid) can flow through it well - or like a motorway - Myelin sheath - white colour - fatty, makes info processing faster - White matter intensities - scars in straws/motorway

Answer 195

0.29 and 0.28

Answer 196

Thicker grey matter on surface of brain Healthier white matter connections overall Fewer white matter scars causing ‘leakage’ A larger brain overall. Why? Answer not fully known – possibly greater numbers of nerve cells

Answer 197

Brain made up of around 100 billion brain cells (building blocks of cognition) Each one acts like a small chip – collect, process and pass on information via electrical signals

Answer 198

Long projections on cells to collect signals

Answer 199

Studied 46 people who needed surgery for brain tumours or epilepsy Each took a WAIS IQ test before the operation, and a block of brain tissue was obtained away from the epileptic focus or tumour, and displayed no structural / functional abnormalities Vast number of brain cells in human neocortex, so even slight change in neuronal efficiency could translate to large differences in mental ability

Answer 200

Goriounova et al. (2018) - biological cellular evidence that individuals with a higher IQ possess larger / more complex dendrites and are able to sustain faster action potentials In conditions of high cognitive demand, like during an IQ test, larger and faster neurons can help to process information quickly and efficiently

Answer 201

IQ scores positively correlate with cortical thickness of the temporal lobe Average total dendritic length in pyramidal cells correlates with cortical thickness in temporal lobe Indicates that dendritic structure of individual neurons contributes to the overall thickness of cortex Average total length and number of dendritic branches in pyramidal cells correlates with IQ scores Higher IQ scores are accompanied by faster action potentials

Answer 202

Pyramidal cells – abundant in cerebral cortex of virtually every mammal studied Primarily found in brain structures associated with advanced cognitive functions, e.g. intelligence Pyramidal cells are the primary excitation units in cortex - integrators and accumulators of synaptic information

Answer 203

Widely accepted theory that working memory is crucial for fluid intelligence (gf), that is the ability to use inductive, deductive, and quantitative reasoning to solve novel, "on-the-spot" problems

Answer 204

48 healthy participants Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices, widely used measure of gf, was administered before fMRI session They probed individual differences in general fluid intelligence and looked to see if these differences corresponded to differences in brain activity Measured performance on the n back task (included lures to increase attentional demand)

Answer 205

There was a positive correlation (0.36) between accuracy on ‘Lure’ trials (higher interference working memory) and fluid intelligence (Raven’s) fMRI showed that activity in left lateral Prefrontal cortex in correct ‘Lure’ trials correlates with fluid intelligence on Raven’s Matrices (r=0.46) Conclusion: Participants scoring higher on Raven’s Matrices Tests (fluid intelligence) were more accurate in a challenging working memory task during which left Prefrontal cortex was heavily engaged A good working memory supports fluid intelligence (gf) with left lateral Prefrontal cortex activity partly mediating this cognitive process

Answer 206

Mapping the connections in the brain – known as the connectome 296 healthy adults / adolescents (14-24 years) and validated with a second cohort of 124 volunteers Used multimodal MRI to build ‘morphometric similarity networks (MSNs)’ to show how well connected an individual’s brain regions are Built a map showing how well connected the ‘hubs’ were Investigated relationship between interindividual differences in brain network topology and interindividual differences in general intelligence Predicted specifically that individual differences in IQ should be related to individual differences in nodal degree

Answer 207

High number of pyramidal neurons that can simultaneously capture multi dimension info during higher cognitive functions Hubs can coordinate activity of large populations of globally distributed neurons

Answer 208

MSN degree related to verbal and non verbal IQ High degree (highly connected) hubs identified in left frontal and temporal cortex, which were highly predictive of higher IQ score We saw a clear link between the ‘hubbiness’ of higher-order brain regions – in other words, how densely connected they were to the rest of the network – and an individual’s IQ. This makes sense if you think of the hubs as enabling the flow of information around the brain – the stronger the connections, the better the brain is at processing information.” Jakob Seidlitz

Answer 209

Larger whole-brain volume Thicker grey matter on brain surface (cortical thickness) Larger / more complex dendrites and faster action potentials Good working memory (partly mediated by PFctx) Highly connected higher-order brain networks (hubs)